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#+LaTeX_CLASS: report
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* Preamble :ignore_heading:
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** Packages :ignore_heading:
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#+LaTeX_HEADER: %% list of figure
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#+LaTeX_HEADER: %% init gloassaries
#+LaTeX_HEADER: %% noidx cause otherwise we have to do a normal glossary, compile, then remove it so it is cached
#+LaTeX_HEADER: %% because we only use acronym
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \makenoidxglossaries
#+LaTeX_HEADER: %% bibliography config
#+LaTeX_HEADER: %% https://tex.stackexchange.com/a/6977
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \DeclareBibliographyCategory{cited}
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#+LaTeX_HEADER: \addbibresource{Bibliography.bib}
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#+LaTeX_HEADER: \addbibresource{references.bib}
#+LaTeX_HEADER: %% hyperref setup
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \hypersetup{
#+LaTeX_HEADER: colorlinks = true,
#+LaTeX_HEADER: linkcolor = blue, % normal internal links, like ref, can be black tbh
#+LaTeX_HEADER: citecolor = blue, % bibliographical links
#+LaTeX_HEADER: urlcolor = blue, % linked urls
#+LaTeX_HEADER: filecolor = black % url which open local files
#+LaTeX_HEADER: }
#+LaTeX_HEADER: %% modified reference function
#+LaTeX_HEADER: %% https://tex.stackexchange.com/a/438998
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \newcommand\eref[1]{equation~(\ref{#1})}
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \newcommand\tref[1]{table~\ref{#1}}
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \newcommand\fref[1]{figure~\ref{#1}}
#+LaTeX_HEADER: %% 1.5 line spacing
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \setstretch{1.5}
** Info :ignore_heading:
#+LaTeX_HEADER: %% The title of Thesis
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \newcommand{\thesisTitle}{How to make a thesis following the guideline with more text to have two lines}
#+LaTeX_HEADER: %% Number of Volume, if more than one
#+LaTeX_HEADER: %% not sure how it works out with latex tbh
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \newcommand{\numberVolume}{2}
#+LaTeX_HEADER: %% The number of this volume
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \newcommand{\actualVolume}{1}
#+LaTeX_HEADER: %% The author's name (you)
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \newcommand{\authorName}{A Good Name}
#+LaTeX_HEADER: %% Distinctions/Qualifications if desired
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \newcommand{\distinction}{The awesome}
#+LaTeX_HEADER: %% The qualification
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \newcommand{\degreeQualification}{Doctor of Philosophy}
#+LaTeX_HEADER: %% The institution
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \newcommand{\institution}{Some weird institute no one ever heard about}
#+LaTeX_HEADER: %% The school
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \newcommand{\school}{School of Latex and Writing}
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \newcommand{\university}{Heriot-Watt University}
#+LaTeX_HEADER: %% Month of submission
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \newcommand{\monthDate}{September}
#+LaTeX_HEADER: %% Year of submission
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \newcommand{\yearDate}{2042}
** Acronyms :ignore_heading:
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \newacronym{gcd}{GCD}{Greatest Common Divisor}
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \newacronym{lcm}{LCM}{Least Common Multiple}
** Packages 2 :ignore_heading:
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage{subfiles}
** Titlepage :ignore_heading:
#+LaTeX: \pagestyle{empty}
# #+LaTeX: \input{preliminaries/1-titlepages}
#+BEGIN_LATEX
\begin{center}
\vspace*{15pt}\par
\setstretch{1}
% \hrule
% \vspace{10pt}\par
\begin{spacing}{1.8}
%% you can replace by \MakeUppercase if you want uppercase
{\Large\bfseries\MakeLowercase{\capitalisewords{\thesisTitle}}}\\
\end{spacing}
% \hrule
% This thesis is composed of \numberVolume volumes. This one is the number \actualVolume.
\vspace{40pt}\par
\includegraphics[width=140pt]{Figures/logo.png}\\
\vspace{40pt}\par
{\itshape\fontsize{15.5pt}{19pt}\selectfont by\\}\vspace{15pt}\par
{
\Large \authorName
% , \distinction
}\vspace{55pt}\par
{
\large Submitted for the degree of \\ \vspace{8pt} \Large\slshape\degreeQualification\\
}
\vspace{35pt}\par
{\scshape\setstretch{1.5} \institution\\ \school\\ \university\\
}
\vspace{50pt}\par
{\large \monthDate\ \yearDate}
\vfill
\begin{flushleft}
\setstretch{1.4}\small
The copyright in this thesis is owned by the author. Any quotation from the thesis or use of any of the information contained in it must acknowledge this thesis as the source of the quotation or information.
\end{flushleft}
\end{center}
#+END_LATEX
** Abstract :ignore_heading:
# remove this line if you don't want pagination on preliminary pages
# also read the comment below, for table of content and other
# #+LaTeX: % \pagestyle{preliminary}
#+BEGIN_LATEX
\clearpage
\begin{center}
\LARGE\textbf {Abstract}
\end{center}
\vspace{5pt}
\noindent
In accordance with the Academic Regulations the thesis must contain an abstract preferably not exceeding 200 words, bound in to precede the thesis. The abstract should appear on its own, on a single page. The format should be the same as that of the main text. The abstract should provide a synopsis of the thesis and shall state clearly the nature and scope of the research undertaken and of the contribution made to the knowledge of the subject treated. There should be a brief statement of the method of investigation where appropriate, an outline of the major divisions or principal arguments of the work and a summary of any conclusions reached. The abstract must follow the Title Page.
#+END_LATEX
** Dedication & Acknowledgements :ignore_heading:
#+BEGIN_LATEX
\clearpage
\begin{center}
\LARGE\textbf {Dedication}
\end{center}
\vspace{5pt}
If a dedication is included then it should be immediately after the Abstract page.\par
I don't what it is actually.
#+END_LATEX
#+BEGIN_LATEX
\clearpage
\begin{center}
\LARGE\textbf {Acknowledgements}
\end{center}
\vspace{5pt}
\noindent I wanna thanks all coffee and tea manufacturers and sellers that made the completion of this work possible.
#+END_LATEX
** COMMENT Declaration :ignore_heading:
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#+LaTeX: % % read about declaration in file
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#+LaTeX: \tableofcontents
#+LaTeX: \listoftables % optional
#+LaTeX: \listoffigures % optional
#+LaTeX: \glsaddall % this is to include all acronym. You can do a sort of citation for acronym and include only the one you use, Look at the glossary package for details.
#+LaTeX: \printnoidxglossary[type=\acronymtype, title=Glossary] % optional
#+LaTeX: %% put your publications in BibMine.bib
#+LaTeX: %% They will be displayed here
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#+LaTeX: \printbibliography[omitnumbers=true,title={List of Publications}]
#+LaTeX: \end{refsection}
#+LaTeX: }
** End of Preliminaries :ignore_heading:
#+LaTeX: \clearpage
#+LaTeX: \pagestyle{chapter}
* Chapters
** Introduction
*** Paragraph 1: Introduction to Stellite Alloys for Hostile Environments :ignore_heading:
#+BEGIN_COMMENT
- [X] What they are and where they came from.
+ [X] Identification as Cobalt-base superalloys
+ [X] Core beneficial properties
high strength, corrosion resistance, high-temperature hardness
+ [X] Pioneering figure (Elwood Haynes) and seminal alloy
Stellite 6 with nominal composition
#+END_COMMENT
Stellites are a cobalt-base superalloy used in aggresive service environments due to retention of strength, wear resistance, and oxidation resistance at high temperature \cite{ahmedStructurePropertyRelationships2014}.
Originating in 1907 with Elwood Haynes's development of alloys like Stellite 6, Stellites quickly found use in orthopedic implants, machine tools, and nuclear components, and new variations on the original CoCrWC and CoCrMoC alloys are spreading to new sectors like oil & gas and chemical processing \cite{malayogluComparingPerformanceHIPed2003, ahmedStructurePropertyRelationships2014}.
*** Paragraph: Impact of Composition, Microstructure, and Processing on Corrosion and Cavitation Performance :ignore_heading:
Stellites generally contain 25-33 wt Cr, 4-18 W/Mo, 0.1-3.3 wt C, and optional trace elements of Fe, Ni, Si, P, S, B, Ln, Mn, as seen in Table \ref{tab:stellite_composition} \cite{ahmedMappingMechanicalProperties2023, alimardaniEffectLocalizedDynamic2010, ashworthMicrostructurePropertyRelationships1999, bunchCorrosionGallingResistant1989, davis2000nickel, desaiEffectCarbideSize1984, ferozhkhanMetallurgicalStudyStellite2017, pacquentinTemperatureInfluenceRepair2025, ratiaComparisonSlidingWear2019, zhangFrictionWearCharacterization2002}. The microstructure of Stellite alloys consists of a CoCr(W,Mo) matrix with solid solution strengthening, with hard carbide phases, usually with Cr (e.g., $M_{7}C_{3}$, $M_{23}C_{6}$), and W/Mo (e.g. $MC$, $M_{6}C$ ); the proportion and type of carbides depend on carbon content and the relative amounts of carbon with carbide formers (Cr, W, Mo), as well as processing routes. In addition to the solid solution toughness and carbide hardness, the stress-induced FCC tp HCP phase transformation of the Co-based solid solution further increases wear resistance through work hardening.
**** Table: Show the table of stellite compositions :ignore_heading:
# \begin{landscape}
# \begin{table}
# \caption{Stellite Compositions}
# \label{tab:stellite_composition}
# \begin{threeparttable}
# \begin{table}{lllllllllllllllll}
#+BEGIN_LATEX
\begin{landscape}
\begin{ThreePartTable}
\centering
\caption{Stellite Compositions}
\label{tab:stellite_composition}
\begin{longtable}{l|ll|ll|l|llllllll|lll}
% \toprule & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Base} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Refractory} & Carbon & \multicolumn{8}{c}{Others} & \multicolumn{3}{c}{} \\
\toprule
Alloy &
\textbf{Co} & \textbf{Cr} & \textbf{W} & \textbf{Mo} & \textbf{C} & \textbf{Fe} &
\textbf{Ni} & \textbf{Si} & \textbf{P} & \textbf{S} & \textbf{B} & \textbf{Ln} &
\textbf{Mn} & \textbf{Ref} & \textbf{Process Type} & \textbf{Observation} \\
\midrule
\multirow{4}{*}{Stellite 1}
& 47.7 & 30 & 13 & 0.5 & 2.5 & 3 & 1.5 & 1.3 & & & & & 0.5 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\
& 48.6 & 33 & 12.5 & 0 & 2.5 & 1 & 1 & 1.3 & & & & & 0.1 & \cite{alimardaniEffectLocalizedDynamic2010} & & \\
& 46.84 & 31.7 & 12.7 & 0.29 & 2.47 & 2.3 & 2.38 & 1.06 & & & & & 0.26 & \cite{ahmedMappingMechanicalProperties2023} & HIPed\tnote{a} & ICP-OES\tnote{b} \\
\midrule
\multirow{2}{*}{Stellite 3}
& 50.5 & 33 & 14 & & 2.5 & & & & & & & & & \cite{bunchCorrosionGallingResistant1989} & & \\
& 49.24 & 29.57 & 12.07 & 0.67 & 2.52 & 2.32 & 1.07 & 1.79 & & & & & 0.75 & \cite{ratiaComparisonSlidingWear2019} & HIPed\tnote{a} & ICP-OES\tnote{b} \\
\midrule
\multirow{5}{*}{Stellite 4}
& 45.43 & 30 & 14 & 1 & 0.57 & 3 & 3 & 2 & & & & & 1 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\
& 51.5 & 30 & 14 & & 1 & 1 & 2 & 0.5 & & & & & & \cite{zhangFrictionWearCharacterization2002} & & \\
& 51.9 & 33 & 14 & & 1.1 & & & & & & & & & \cite{bunchCorrosionGallingResistant1989} & & \\
& 49.41 & 31 & 14 & 0.12 & 0.67 & 2.16 & 1.82 & 1.04 & & & & & 0.26 & \cite{ahmedMappingMechanicalProperties2023} & HIPed\tnote{a} & ICP-OES\tnote{b} \\
& 50.2 & 29.8 & 14.4 & 0 & 0.7 & 1.9 & 1.9 & 0.8 & & & & & 0.3 & \cite{ashworthMicrostructurePropertyRelationships1999} & HIPed\tnote{a} & \\
\midrule
\multirow{10}{*}{Stellite 6}
& 51.5 & 28.5 & 4.5 & 1.5 & 1 & 5 & 3 & 2 & & & 1 & & 2 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\
& 63.81 & 27.08 & 5.01 & & 0.96 & 0.73 & 0.87 & 1.47 & & & & & 0.07 & \cite{ratiaComparisonSlidingWear2019} & HIPed\tnote{a} & ICP-OES\tnote{b} \\
& 60.3 & 29 & 4.5 & & 1.2 & 2 & 2 & 1 & & & & & & \cite{zhangFrictionWearCharacterization2002} & & \\
& 61.7 & 27.5 & 4.5 & 0.5 & 1.15 & 1.5 & 1.5 & 1.15 & & & & & 0.5 & \cite{bunchCorrosionGallingResistant1989} & & \\
& 58.46 & 29.5 & 4.6 & 0.22 & 1.09 & 2.09 & 2.45 & 1.32 & & & & & 0.27 & \cite{ahmedMappingMechanicalProperties2023} & HIPed\tnote{a} & ICP-OES\tnote{b} \\
& 58.04 & 30.59 & 4.72 & & 1.24 & 2.03 & 1.87 & 0.80 & 0.01 & 0.01 & & & & \cite{ferozhkhanMetallurgicalStudyStellite2017} & PTAW\tnote{e} & OES \\
& 55.95 & 27.85 & 3.29 & & 0.87 & 6.24 & 3.63 & 1.23 & 0.01 & 0.01 & & & 0.45 & \cite{ferozhkhanMetallurgicalStudyStellite2017} & GTAW\tnote{d} & OES \\
& 52.40 & 30.37 & 3.57 & & 0.96 & 6.46 & 3.93 & 1.70 & 0.01 & 0.01 & & & 0.3 & \cite{ferozhkhanMetallurgicalStudyStellite2017} & SMAW\tnote{c} & OES \\
& 60.3 & & 31.10 & 4.70 & 0.30 & 1.10 & 1.70 & 1.50 & 1.30 & & 0.00 & & 0.3 & \cite{pacquentinTemperatureInfluenceRepair2025} & LP-DED & ICP-AES \& GDMS \\
& 60.6 & 27.7 & 5 & 0 & 1.2 & 1.9 & 2 & 1.3 & & & & & 0.3 & \cite{ashworthMicrostructurePropertyRelationships1999} & HIPed\tnote{a} & \\
% \midrule
% Stellite 7
% & 64 & 25.9 & 4.9 & 0 & 0.5 & 1.5 & 1.1 & 1.1 & & & & & 1 & \cite{ashworthMicrostructurePropertyRelationships1999} & HIPed\tnote{a} & \\
\midrule
\multirow{2}{*}{Stellite 12}
& 53.6 & 30 & 8.3 & & 1.4 & 3 & 1.5 & 0.7 & & & & & 1.5 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\
& 55.22 & 29.65 & 8.15 & 0.2 & 1.49 & 2.07 & 2.04 & 0.91 & & & & & 0.27 & \cite{ahmedMappingMechanicalProperties2023} & HIPed\tnote{a} & ICP-OES \\
\midrule
Stellite 19
& 50.94 & 31.42 & 10.08 & 0.79 & 2.36 & 1.82 & 2 & 0.4 & & & 0.09 & & 0.1 & \cite{desaiEffectCarbideSize1984} & & \\
\midrule
\multirow{2}{*}{Stellite 20}
& 41.05 & 33 & 17.5 & & 2.45 & 2.5 & 2.5 & & & & & & 1 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\
& 43.19 & 31.85 & 16.3 & 0.27 & 2.35 & 2.5 & 2.28 & 1 & & & & & 0.26 & \cite{ahmedMappingMechanicalProperties2023} & HIPed\tnote{a} & ICP-OES \\
\midrule
\multirow{2}{*}{Stellite 21}
& 59.493 & 27 & & 5.5 & 0.25 & 3 & 2.75 & 1 & & & 0.007 & & 1 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\
& 60.6 & 26.9 & 0 & 5.7 & 0.2 & 1.3 & 2.7 & 1.9 & & & & & 0.7 & \cite{ashworthMicrostructurePropertyRelationships1999} & HIPed\tnote{a} & \\
% \midrule
% Stellite 22
% & 54 & 27 & & 11 & 0.25 & 3 & 2.75 & 1 & & & & & 1 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\
% \midrule
% Stellite 23
% & 65.5 & 24 & 5 & & 0.4 & 1 & 2 & 0.6 & & & & & 0.3 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\
% \midrule
% Stellite 25
% & 49.4 & 20 & 15 & & 0.1 & 3 & 10 & 1 & & & & & 1.5 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\
% \midrule
% Stellite 27
% & 35 & 25 & & 5.5 & 0.4 & 1 & 32 & 0.6 & & & & & 0.3 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\
% \midrule
% Stellite 30
% & 50.5 & 26 & & 6 & 0.45 & 1 & 15 & 0.6 & & & & & 0.6 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\
\midrule
\multirow{2}{*}{Stellite 31}
& 57.5 & 22 & 7.5 & & 0.5 & 1.5 & 10 & 0.5 & & & & & 0.5 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\
& 52.9 & 25.3 & 7.8 & 0 & 0.5 & 1.1 & 11.4 & 0.6 & & & & & 0.4 & \cite{ashworthMicrostructurePropertyRelationships1999} & HIPed\tnote{a} & \\
% \midrule
% Stellite 80
% & 44.6 & 33.5 & 19 & & 1.9 & & & & & & 1 & & & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\
% \midrule
% Stellite 188
% & 37.27 & 22 & 14 & & 0.1 & 3 & 22 & 0.35 & & & & 0.03 & 1.25 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\
\midrule
\multirow{2}{*}{Stellite 190}
& 46.7 & 27 & 14 & 1 & 3.3 & 3 & 3 & 1 & & & & & 1 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\
& 48.72 & 27.25 & 14.4 & 0.2 & 3.21 & 2.1 & 2.81 & 1 & & & & & 0.31 & \cite{ahmedMappingMechanicalProperties2023}
& HIPed\tnote{a} & ICP-OES\tnote{*} \\
% \midrule
% Stellite 300
% & 44.5 & 22 & 32 & & 1.5 & & & & & & & & & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\
% \midrule
% Stellite 694
% & 45 & 28 & 19 & & 1 & 5 & & 1 & & & & & 1 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\
% \midrule
% Stellite 703
% & 44.6 & 32 & & 12 & 2.4 & 3 & 3 & 1.5 & & & & & 1.5 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\
% \midrule
% Stellite 706
% & 55.8 & 29 & & 5 & 1.2 & 3 & 3 & 1.5 & & & & & 1.5 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\
% \midrule
% Stellite 712
% & 51.5 & 29 & & 8.5 & 2 & 3 & 3 & 1.5 & & & & & 1.5 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\
% \midrule
% Stellite 720
% & 37.2 & 33 & & 18 & 2.5 & 3 & 3 & 1.5 & & & 0.3 & & 1.5 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\
\end{longtable}
\begin{TableNotes}
\item[a] Hot Isostatic Pressing
\item[b] Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy
\item[c] Shielded metal arc welding
\item[d] Gas tungsten Arc Welding
\item[e] Plasma transfered Arc Welding
\end{TableNotes}
\end{ThreePartTable}
\end{landscape}
#+END_LaTeX
# \end{tabular}
# \begin{tablenotes}
# \item[*] The footnote text.
# \item[a] Another footnote.
# \end{tablenotes}
# \end{threeparttable}
# \end{table}
# \end{landscape}
*** Paragraph 2: Fundamental Mechanisms of Corrosion and Cavitation Resistance :ignore_heading:
#+BEGIN_COMMENT
- [ ] Fundamental Strengthening Mechanisms
+ [ ] Primary mechanism: Hard carbide precipitation (e.g., M$_{7}$C$_{3}$, M$_{23}$C$_{6}$), with dependence on carbon content and processing.
+ [ ] Secondary mechanism: Solid solution strengthening by specific elements (W, Mo, Cr), also linked to carbon content.
+ [ ] Additional mechanism: Stress-induced phase transformation (fcc to hcp) contributing to wear resistance via work hardening.
- [ ] How they are made and modified.
- [ ] Current research directions and future outlook.
#+END_COMMENT
The remarkable ability of Stellite alloys to withstand these specific challenges stems from key metallurgical features. Their corrosion resistance is primarily attributed to a high chromium content, typically 20-30 wt.%, which promotes the formation of a highly stable, tenacious, and self-healing chromium-rich passive oxide film on the material's surface; this film acts as a barrier isolating the underlying alloy from the corrosive environment. Alloying elements such as molybdenum and tungsten can further enhance this passivity, particularly improving resistance to localized corrosion phenomena like pitting and crevice corrosion in aggressive media. Concurrently, their outstanding cavitation resistance is largely derived from the unique behavior of the cobalt-rich matrix, which can undergo a stress-induced crystallographic transformation from a face-centered cubic (fcc) to a hexagonal close-packed (hcp) structure. This transformation, often facilitated by mechanical twinning, effectively absorbs the intense, localized impact energy from collapsing cavitation bubbles and leads to significant work hardening, thereby impeding material detachment and erosion.
*** Paragraph 4: Synergistic Challenges in Applications Prone to Corrosion and Cavitation :ignore:
*** Paragraph 5: Research and Development for Enhanced Corrosion and Cavitation Performance :ignore:
*** Paragraph 6: Influence of HIPing :ignore:
Compared with the case alloys, the HIPed alloys had relatively finer, rounded, and distributed carbides.
*** General Background
# \section{General Background}
# Analysis: The paragraph effectively introduces the challenge of cavitation erosion in fluid-handling systems and discusses the need for materials with improved resistance or proposes potential mitigation strategies.
# Problem Statement: It starts by clearly stating the prevalence and detrimental effects of cavitation (e.g., material erosion, reduced efficiency, noise, vibration, component failure) in key applications (e.g., pumps, propellers, turbines, valves), establishing the necessity for effective solutions.
# Focus Area / Proposed Solution: It highlights the goal of developing or utilizing materials/coatings/treatments with enhanced cavitation resistance, or introduces specific approaches intended to combat the damage.
# Mechanism: It explains the fundamental mechanism of cavitation damage (e.g., vapor bubble formation and violent collapse, generation of shockwaves and micro-jets) leading to material erosion, and potentially discusses how a proposed solution resists this mechanism.
# Context/Validation: It grounds the issue by referencing specific industries or critical components where cavitation erosion is a significant operational problem (e.g., marine propulsion, hydropower generation, hydraulic machinery, chemical processing) and underscores the importance of resistant materials in these contexts.
# Relevant Properties: It lists specific material characteristics or properties deemed crucial for resisting cavitation erosion (e.g., toughness, hardness, fatigue strength, work-hardening capacity, corrosion resistance, grain structure, phase stability).
# Knowledge Gap: Critically, it may point out limitations in current materials, testing standards, predictive models, or fundamental understanding, such as predicting erosion rates accurately, performance under combined erosion-corrosion conditions, or the behavior of novel materials.
# Call for Research/Development: Consequently, it emphasizes the need for further research, development of new materials/coatings, improved testing protocols, or advanced modeling techniques to better predict and mitigate cavitation erosion.
# Potential Applications: It suggests specific components (e.g., impellers, propellers, valve seats, cylinder liners) or systems that would directly benefit from advancements in cavitation-resistant materials, improving reliability and performance across various sectors.
# \chaptermark{Cavitation Erosion} % optional for veryy long chapter, you can rename what appear in the header
# %% have a mini table of content at the start of the chapter
# {
# \hypersetup{linkcolor=black}
# \minitoc
# }
%cite:@Franc2004265, @Romo201216, @Kumar2024, @Kim200685, @Gao2024, @20221xix, @Usta2023, @Cheng2023, @Zheng2022
Cavitation erosion presents a significant challenge in materials degradation in various industrial sectors, including hydroelectric power, marine propulsion, and nuclear systems, stemming from a complex interaction between fluid dynamics and material response \cite{francCavitationErosion2005, romoCavitationHighvelocitySlurry2012}. Hydrodynamically, the phenomenon initiates with the formation and subsequent violent collapse of vapor bubbles within a liquid, triggered by local pressures dropping to the saturated vapor pressure. These implosions generate intense, localized shockwaves and high-speed microjets that repeatedly impact adjacent solid surfaces \cite{gevariDirectIndirectThermal2020}. From a materials perspective, these impacts induce high stresses (100-1000 MPa) and high strain rates, surpassing material thresholds and leading to damage accumulation via plastic deformation, work hardening, fatigue crack initiation and propagation, and eventual material detachment. Mitigating this requires materials capable of effectively absorbing or resisting this dynamic loading, often under demanding conditions that may also include corrosion.
Stellite alloys, cobalt-chromium formulations that contain carbon, tungsten and/or molybdenum, represent a critical class of materials renowned for their wear resistance in such harsh environments \cite{shinEffectMolybdenumMicrostructure2003}. Their performance stems from a composite-like microstructure combining a strong cobalt-rich matrix, strengthened by solid solutions of Cr and W/Mo, with hard carbide precipitates (e.g., M7C3, M23C6) that impede wear and crack propagation \cite{ahmedSlidingWearBlended2021a, crookCobaltbaseAlloysResist1994}.
% Martensitic transformation
Crucially, the cobalt matrix often possesses a low stacking fault energy, facilitating a strain-induced martensitic transformation from a metastable face-centered cubic $\gamma$ phase to a hexagonal close-packed $\epsilon$ phase under the intense loading of cavitation. This transformation is a primary mechanism for dissipating impact energy and enhancing work hardening, contributing significantly to Stellite's characteristic cavitation resistance \cite{huangMicrostructureEvolutionMartensite2023, tawancyFccHcpTransformation1986}.
HIPing is a thermo-mechanical material processing technique which involves the simultaneous application of pressure (up to 200 MPa) and temperature (2000 C), which results in casting densification, porosity closure, and metallurgical bonding. \cite{yuComparisonTriboMechanicalProperties2007}
While commonly applied via casting or weld overlays, processing routes like Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP) offer potential advantages such as microstructure refinement \cite{stoicaInfluenceHeattreatmentSliding2005} finer microstructures and enhanced fatigue resistance \cite{ahmedInfluenceReHIPingStructure2013, yuComparisonTriboMechanicalProperties2007}.
HIPing of surface coatings results in microstructure refinement, which can yield improved fatigue and fracture resistance.
HIPing leads to carbide refinement, which can yield improved impact toughness \cite{yuInfluenceManufacturingProcess2008}, and reduce carbide brittleness \cite{yuComparisonTriboMechanicalProperties2007}.
Furthermore, HIP facilitates the consolidation of novel 'blended' alloys created from mixed elemental or pre-alloyed powders, providing a pathway to potentially tailor compositions or microstructures for optimized performance. However, despite the prevalence of Stellite alloys and the known influence of processing on microstructure and properties, the specific cavitation erosion behavior of HIP-consolidated Stellites, particularly these blended formulations, remains underexplored in academic literature. Given that erosion mechanisms in Stellites often involve interactions at the carbide-matrix interface \cite{szalaEffectNitrogenIon2021}, understanding how HIP processing and compositional blending affect these interfaces and the matrix's transformative capacity under cavitation, especially when potentially coupled with corrosion, constitutes a critical knowledge gap addressed by this research.
% Need to describe Stellite 1
\section{Stellite 1}
Stellite 1 is a high-carbon and high-tungsten alloy, making it suitable for demanding applications that require hardness & toughness to combat sliding & abrasive wear \cite{crookCobaltbaseAlloysResist1994}
\section{Stellites}
\section{Objectives and Scope of the Research Work}
\section{Thesis Outline}
\section{Literature Survey}
\section{Cavitation Tests}
** Analytical Investigations
# \chapter{Analytical Investigations}
# \section{Introduction}
# \section{Finite Element Model (FEM)}
# \section{Model description}
# \section{Model Validation}
# \section{Result Analysis of Typical Load Case}
** Experimental Investigations
*** Materials and Microstructure
The HIPed alloy was produced via canning the gas-atomized powders at 1200C and 100 MPa pressure for 4h, while the cast alloys were produced via sand casting.
% Sieve analysis and description of powders
% Refer to Table of chemical compositions of both cast and HIPed alloys.
The microstructure of the alloys were observed via SEM in BSE mode, and the chemical compositions of the identified phases developed in the alloys were determined via EDS as well as with XRD under Cu $K_{\alpha}$ radiation.
Image analysis was also conducted to ascertain the volume fractions of individual phases.
# \chapter{Experimental Investigations}
# \section{Introduction}
# \section{X-ray diffraction technique of residual stress measurement}
# \section{Surface Roughness Measurements}
# \section{Microhardness measurements}
The Vickers microhardness was measured using a Wilson hardness tester under loads of BLAH. Thirty measurements under each load were conducted on each sample.
** Discussion
# \chapter{Discussion}
# \chapter{Cavitation Erosion}
\section{Experimental Test Procedure}
\subsection{Hardness Tests}
\subsection{Cavitation}
\section{Relationships between cavitation erosion resistance and mechanical properties}
\section{Influence of vibratory amplitude}
% Insert the whole spiel by that French dude about displacement and pressure (and then ruin it)
The pressure of the solution depends on the amplitude of the vibratory tip attached to the ultrasonic device. Under simple assumptions, kinetic energy of cavitation is proportional to the square of the amplitude and maximum hammer pressure is proportional to A.
\begin{align}
x &= A sin(2 \pi f t) \\
v &= \frac{dx}{dt} = 2 \pi f A sin(2 \pi f t) \\
v_{max} &= 2 \pi f A \\
v_{mean} &= \frac{1}{\pi} \int^\pi_0 A sin(2 \pi f t) = 4 f A \\
\end{align}
However, several researchers have found that erosion rates are not proportional to the second power of amplitude, but instead a smaller number.
Thiruvengadum \cite{thiruvengadamTheoryErosion1967} and Hobbs find that erosion rates are proportional to the 1.8 and 1.5 power of peak-to-peak amplitude.
Tomlinson et al find that erosion rate is linearly proportional to peak-to-peak amplitude in copper [3].
Maximum erosion rate is approximately proportional to the 1.5 power of p-p amplitude [4].
The propagation of ultrasonic waves may result in thermal energy absorption or into chemical energy, resulting in reduced power. For the purposes of converting data from studies that do not use an amplitude of 50um, a exponent factor of 1.5 has been applied.
** Cavitation :noexport:
#+LaTeX: \pagestyle{chapter}
#+LaTeX: \subfile{Chapters/Cavitation}
#+LaTeX: \subfile{Chapters/Chapter1-Introduction}
#+LaTeX: \subfile{Chapters/Chapter2}
#+LaTeX: \subfile{Chapters/Chapter3}
#+LaTeX: \appendix
#+LaTeX: \subfile{Appendices/Appendix1}
#+LaTeX: %% add publications in pdf format
#+LaTeX: \clearpage
#+LaTeX: \stepcounter{chapter}
#+LaTeX: \addcontentsline{toc}{chapter}{\thechapter\ \ \ \ Publication 1}
#+LaTeX: \includepdf[pages=-]{Publications/Publication1.pdf}
* Bibliography :noexport:
# using biblatex rather than bibtex to easily have further reading and references
# you need to remove the cache file when adding files to the bibliography
# Log and output files > trash icons in Overleaf
# sorted by citation
#+LaTeX: \label{Bibliography}
#+LaTeX: \printbibliography[title={References}, heading=bibintoc, resetnumbers=true]
# %% sorted by alphabetical order, using author name
# %\begin{refsection}
# %\DeclareFieldFormat{labelnumberwidth}{#1}
# %\nocite{*}
# %\printbibliography[title={Bibliography}, notcategory=cited, omitnumbers=true, heading=bibintoc]
# %\end{refsection}
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