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[doc]
name = "something"
bundle = "https://data1.fullyjustified.net/tlextras-2022.0r0.tar"
[[output]]
name = "VishakhPradeepKumar_MscThesis"
type = "pdf"
tex_format = "latex"
inputs = [
"report.tex",
"references.bib"
]

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@ -373,6 +373,35 @@ SCHEDULED: <2025-07-17 خ>
** Introduction ** Introduction
*** Challenge of Cavitation Erosion in Hydrodynamic Systems :ignore_heading: *** Challenge of Cavitation Erosion in Hydrodynamic Systems :ignore_heading:
Cavitation erosion, the mechanical degradation of surfaces due to collapse of bubbles and the resulting high-frequency high-pressure shock waves, is a primary failure mechanism that limits the durability and service life of hydraulic components operating in aggressive service environment.
\cite{houCavitationErosionMechanisms2020}
To increase the durability and service life of hydraulic components vulnerable to cavitation damage depends on improving the material's resistance to cavitation erosion, which is the mechanical degradation of surfaces due to the collapse of bubbles and the resulting high-frequency high0pressure shock waves.
# The cavitation phenomenon is the formation and collapse of microbubbles by abrupt pressure fluctuations in a flowing liquid, generating shock waves that reach the material surface, causing significant wear over time
# Cavitation erosion (CE) is a common mechanism of material deterioration in hydrodynamic environments, and many components are subjected to serious CE, such as propellers, impellers, turbines, centrifugal-chambers and valves [1], [2], [3]. \cite{houCavitationErosionMechanisms2020}
# Cavitation is generally induced by rapid pressure variations or high-frequency vibrations in liquid environments, and is associated with the formation, growth and collapse of bubbles [4], [5], [6], [7]. \cite{houCavitationErosionMechanisms2020}
# When such bubbles implode in the proximity of a solid surface, powerful micro-jets and/or shock waves with high speeds and impact pressures are produced that can cause the fatigue, fracture and material depletion [8], [9], [10]. \cite{houCavitationErosionMechanisms2020}
# As a result, pits can form on component surfaces that are exposed to repeated loading and then can coalesce and form deep cavities, thereby leading to CE and the eventual failure of components [11], [12], [13].
is closely linked to the cavitation resistance of the material from which parts are made.
# https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtcomm.2025.112395
# In general, hydraulic machinery, especially the impeller, is vulnerable to cavitation damage because the uneven pressure in the liquid leads to the formation of numerous vapors and bubbles [1], [2], [3]. These bubbles flow with the liquid to the high-pressure region, where they collapse [4], [5], [6], creating local vacuums and generating high-frequency, instantaneous high-pressure shock waves. These extreme conditions can result in severe erosion and damage to the surfaces of engineered components [7], [8].
# Increasing the durability and survivability of machine and mechanism parts largely depends on the strength and wear resistance of the material from which they are made.
# Increasing the durability and survivability of machine and mechanism parts largely depends on the strength and wear resistance of the material from which they are made.
The service life of flow components is closely linked to the stability of industrial equipment, with cavitation erosion being one of the primary factors leading to component failure.
# used in aggresive service environments, with exceptional retention of strength, wear resistance, corrosion resistance at high temperature \cite{ahmedStructurePropertyRelationships2014, shinEffectMolybdenumMicrostructure2003}.
**** Mechanism of Cavitation-Induced Material Degradation :ignore_heading: **** Mechanism of Cavitation-Induced Material Degradation :ignore_heading:
# Define cavitation as the formation, growth, and violent collapse of vapor bubbles due to rapid pressure changes. # Define cavitation as the formation, growth, and violent collapse of vapor bubbles due to rapid pressure changes.
# Describe the resultant damage mechanisms: high-velocity micro-jets and shockwaves impinging on a material surface. # Describe the resultant damage mechanisms: high-velocity micro-jets and shockwaves impinging on a material surface.
@ -383,10 +412,6 @@ SCHEDULED: <2025-07-17 خ>
*** Cavitation :ignore: *** Cavitation :ignore:
# Cavitation erosion (CE) is a common mechanism of material deterioration in hydrodynamic environments, and many components are subjected to serious CE, such as propellers, impellers, turbines, centrifugal-chambers and valves [1], [2], [3]. \cite{houCavitationErosionMechanisms2020}
# Cavitation is generally induced by rapid pressure variations or high-frequency vibrations in liquid environments, and is associated with the formation, growth and collapse of bubbles [4], [5], [6], [7]. \cite{houCavitationErosionMechanisms2020}
# When such bubbles implode in the proximity of a solid surface, powerful micro-jets and/or shock waves with high speeds and impact pressures are produced that can cause the fatigue, fracture and material depletion [8], [9], [10]. \cite{houCavitationErosionMechanisms2020}
# As a result, pits can form on component surfaces that are exposed to repeated loading and then can coalesce and form deep cavities, thereby leading to CE and the eventual failure of components [11], [12], [13]. \cite{houCavitationErosionMechanisms2020}
*** Introduction to Stellite Alloys :ignore_heading: *** Introduction to Stellite Alloys :ignore_heading:
@ -710,7 +735,6 @@ These carbides are listed above in the order of increasing stability, or free en
| 1.02616 | 2 | 1 | 11 | 0 | 97.295 | | 1.02616 | 2 | 1 | 11 | 0 | 97.295 |
| 1.01339 | 2 | 5 | 2 | 1 | 98.950 | | 1.01339 | 2 | 5 | 2 | 1 | 98.950 |
***** Paragraph: Tungsten and Molybdenum carbides ***** Paragraph: Tungsten and Molybdenum carbides
# Tungsten is primarily utilized in Stellite alloys to provide solid solution strength and carbide formation but can be replaced by Mo which also partitions to the carbides. # Tungsten is primarily utilized in Stellite alloys to provide solid solution strength and carbide formation but can be replaced by Mo which also partitions to the carbides.
@ -825,7 +849,8 @@ $$ 6C + 23Cr \rightarrow Cr23C6 $$
# As cast is cheap, but not quite making the most of the material # As cast is cheap, but not quite making the most of the material
The manufacturing process dictates the microstructure of Stellite alloys, with powder metallurgy and additive manufacturing surpass conventional casting and welding. Traditional casting involves slow cooling rates that produce coarse, dendritic microstructures characterized by elemental segregation and a continuous, interdendritic network of carbides. The manufacturing process dictates the microstructure of Stellite alloys, with powder metallurgy and additive manufacturing surpass conventional casting and welding. Traditional casting involves slow cooling rates that produce coarse, dendritic microstructures characterized by elemental segregation and a continuous, interdendritic network of carbides.
Welding Stellite alloys onto a substrate creates as-cast microstructure and a fusion zone, where the diffusion of elements alters alloy composition with detrimental phase transformations such as brittle intermetallic compounds \cite{wong-kianComparisonErosioncorrosionBehaviour}. Welding Stellite alloys onto a substrate creates as-cast microstructure and a fusion zone, where the diffusion of elements alters alloy composition with detrimental phase transformations such as brittle intermetallic compounds
\cite{wong-kianComparisonErosioncorrosionBehaviour}.
# Welding is relatively cheap and quick, but the coating is not homogeneous, owing to the as-cast structure and its inherent segregation, and hence the properties are not optimized. Another disadvantage is that only components of simple shape can be welded, because of the problem of distortion. \cite{wong-kianComparisonErosioncorrosionBehaviour} # Welding is relatively cheap and quick, but the coating is not homogeneous, owing to the as-cast structure and its inherent segregation, and hence the properties are not optimized. Another disadvantage is that only components of simple shape can be welded, because of the problem of distortion. \cite{wong-kianComparisonErosioncorrosionBehaviour}
@ -1664,6 +1689,122 @@ Besides, we used the Thermo-Calc software [26] and TCHEA5 thermodynamic database
* Data Tables
** phase_volume_fraction
#+NAME: phase_volume_fraction
| Manufacture | Stellite | Co-rich matrix | Cr-rich carbide | W/Mo-rich carbide | Citations |
|-------------+--------------+----------------+-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------------------------|
| HIPed | 1 | 59.2 | 27.5 | 13.3 | ahmedInfluenceAlloyComposition2025 |
| PTA | 12 | 58.8 | 35.6 | 5.6 | motallebzadehSlidingWearCharacteristics2015 |
| HIPed | 19 | 62.6 | 37.4 | 0 | fioreMicrostructuralEffectsAbrasive1978 |
| HIPed | 20 | 51.1 | 24.2 | 24.7 | ahmedSlidingWearBlended2021a |
| Cast | 20 | 57.4 | 24.5 | 18.1 | yuInfluenceManufacturingProcess2008 |
| HIPed | 20 | 51.1 | 24.2 | 24.7 | yuInfluenceManufacturingProcess2008 |
| HIPed | 21 | 93.3 | 5.1 | 1.7 | ahmedInfluenceAlloyComposition2025 |
| cast | 21 | 95 | 0 | 5 | ahmedStructurePropertyRelationships2014 |
| HIPed | 21 | 93.3 | 5.1 | 1.7 | ahmedStructurePropertyRelationships2014 |
| Cast | 3 | 66.52 | 27.83 | 5.65 | liuMicrostructuresHardnessWear2015 |
| Cast | 3 | 61.69 | 27.22 | 11.09 | liuSlidingWearSolidparticle2015 |
| HIPed | 3 | 44.8 | 46.3 | 8.9 | fioreMicrostructuralEffectsAbrasive1978 |
| Cast | 300 | 49.54 | 9.98 | 40.48 | liuSlidingWearSolidparticle2015 |
| HIPed | 50% 1 50% 21 | 82.2 | 9.0 | 8.9 | ahmedInfluenceAlloyComposition2025 |
| HIPed | 50% 6 50% 20 | 66.1 | 22.1 | 11.2 | ahmedSlidingWearBlended2021a |
| Cast | 6 | 83.11 | 15.57 | 1.32 | liuMicrostructuresHardnessWear2015 |
| Cast | 6 | 79.03 | 15.62 | 5.35 | liuSlidingWearSolidparticle2015 |
| HIPed | 6 | 66.2 | 33.8 | 0 | fioreMicrostructuralEffectsAbrasive1978 |
| HIPed | 6 | 82.1 | 17.9 | 0 | ahmedSlidingWearBlended2021a |
| Cast | 6 | 84.5 | 14.5 | 1 | yuInfluenceManufacturingProcess2008 |
| HIPed | 6 | 82.1 | 17.9 | 0 | yuInfluenceManufacturingProcess2008 |
| Cast | 6 | 84.5 | 14.5 | 1 | ahmedSingleAsperityNanoscratch2014 |
| re-HIPed | 6 | 85 | 15 | 0 | ahmedSingleAsperityNanoscratch2014 |
| HIPed | 6HC | 60.5 | 39.5 | 0 | fioreMicrostructuralEffectsAbrasive1978 |
| Cast | 706 | 83.45 | 13.91 | 2.64 | liuMicrostructuresHardnessWear2015 |
| Cast | 712 | 70.36 | 24.26 | 5.38 | liuMicrostructuresHardnessWear2015 |
| Cast | 720 | 55.31 | 25.09 | 19.6 | liuMicrostructuresHardnessWear2015 |
| HIPed | 98M2 | 43.4 | 43.6 | 13 | fioreMicrostructuralEffectsAbrasive1978 |
| HIPed | J-Metal | 50.1 | 41.0 | 8.9 | fioreMicrostructuralEffectsAbrasive1978 |
#+begin_src jupyter-python :session py :kernel python3 :var phase_volume_fraction=phase_volume_fraction :colnames no
import pandas as pd
df = pd.DataFrame(
phase_volume_fraction[1:],
columns=phase_volume_fraction[0]
)
#df.sort_values(by=["Stellite"])
print(df)
#+end_src
#+RESULTS:
#+begin_example
Manufacture Stellite Co-rich matrix Cr-rich carbide \
0 HIPed 1 59.20 27.50
1 PTA 12 58.80 35.60
2 HIPed 19 62.60 37.40
3 HIPed 20 51.10 24.20
4 Cast 20 57.40 24.50
5 HIPed 20 51.10 24.20
6 HIPed 21 93.30 5.10
7 cast 21 95.00 0.00
8 HIPed 21 93.30 5.10
9 Cast 3 66.52 27.83
10 Cast 3 61.69 27.22
11 HIPed 3 44.80 46.30
12 Cast 300 49.54 9.98
13 HIPed 50% 1 50% 21 82.20 9.00
14 HIPed 50% 6 50% 20 66.10 22.10
15 Cast 6 83.11 15.57
16 Cast 6 79.03 15.62
17 HIPed 6 66.20 33.80
18 HIPed 6 82.10 17.90
19 Cast 6 84.50 14.50
20 HIPed 6 82.10 17.90
21 Cast 6 84.50 14.50
22 re-HIPed 6 85.00 15.00
23 HIPed 6HC 60.50 39.50
24 Cast 706 83.45 13.91
25 Cast 712 70.36 24.26
26 Cast 720 55.31 25.09
27 HIPed 98M2 43.40 43.60
28 HIPed J-Metal 50.10 41.00
W/Mo-rich carbide Citations
0 13.30 ahmedInfluenceAlloyComposition2025
1 5.60 motallebzadehSlidingWearCharacteristics2015
2 0.00 fioreMicrostructuralEffectsAbrasive1978
3 24.70 ahmedSlidingWearBlended2021a
4 18.10 yuInfluenceManufacturingProcess2008
5 24.70 yuInfluenceManufacturingProcess2008
6 1.70 ahmedInfluenceAlloyComposition2025
7 5.00 ahmedStructurePropertyRelationships2014
8 1.70 ahmedStructurePropertyRelationships2014
9 5.65 liuMicrostructuresHardnessWear2015
10 11.09 liuSlidingWearSolidparticle2015
11 8.90 fioreMicrostructuralEffectsAbrasive1978
12 40.48 liuSlidingWearSolidparticle2015
13 8.90 ahmedInfluenceAlloyComposition2025
14 11.20 ahmedSlidingWearBlended2021a
15 1.32 liuMicrostructuresHardnessWear2015
16 5.35 liuSlidingWearSolidparticle2015
17 0.00 fioreMicrostructuralEffectsAbrasive1978
18 0.00 ahmedSlidingWearBlended2021a
19 1.00 yuInfluenceManufacturingProcess2008
20 0.00 yuInfluenceManufacturingProcess2008
21 1.00 ahmedSingleAsperityNanoscratch2014
22 0.00 ahmedSingleAsperityNanoscratch2014
23 0.00 fioreMicrostructuralEffectsAbrasive1978
24 2.64 liuMicrostructuresHardnessWear2015
25 5.38 liuMicrostructuresHardnessWear2015
26 19.60 liuMicrostructuresHardnessWear2015
27 13.00 fioreMicrostructuralEffectsAbrasive1978
28 8.90 fioreMicrostructuralEffectsAbrasive1978
#+end_example
* COMMENT Appendix :ignore_heading: * COMMENT Appendix :ignore_heading:
#+LaTeX: \appendix #+LaTeX: \appendix

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\relax
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# Fdb version 4
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% Created 2025-07-30 ر 14:31
% Intended LaTeX compiler: pdflatex
\documentclass[3p, 11pt]{elsarticle}
\date{}
\title{Influence of manufacturing process on Cavitation Erosion in CoCrWMoCFeNiSiMn (Stellite 1) alloys}
\usepackage{biblatex}
\begin{document}
\lhead{Vishakh Pradeep Kumar}
\rhead{\thepage}
\lfoot{MSc Adv. Mechanical Engineering}
\journal{MSc Advanced Mechanical Engineering}
\begin{frontmatter}
\title{Dissertation title}
\author{Vishakh Pradeep Kumar\fnref{label2}}
\ead{vp2039@hw.ac.uk}
\fntext[label2]{Student ID : H00428384 }
\author{\\ Supervisor: Dr Rehan Ahmed}
\address{Heriot-Watt University, School of Engineering and Physical Sciences, Mechanical Engineering, Dubai}
\begin{abstract}
A concise summary of the work and main results in no more than 200 words.
The lifespan and reliability of components subjected to severe cavitation and corrosion erosion depend critically on material properties and failure mechanisms. The microstructure, and hence performance, of wear-resistant alloys used in such aggressive conditions is not dictated by chemical composition alone but is critically shaped by manufacturing process. % 48 words
Cobalt-based Stellite alloys are a primary choice for these applications, deriving their exceptional wear resistance from hard carbide phases embedded within a tough cobalt-alloy matrix. Traditionally, these alloys are produced by casting, which often produces a coarse and brittle carbide network. In contrast, powder metallurgy routes, such as Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP), yield a significantly more refined and homogeneous microstructure, offering a pathway to superior durability. %% 66 words
However it remains a critical question whether the microstructural refinement achieved through HIPing enhances toughness and fatigue resistance in high-carbon alloys like Stellite 1, particularly in the context of cavitation erosion. % 31 words
Here we show, by directly comparing a cast and a HIPed cobalt alloy (Co–30Cr–12W–2.5C by wt %), that the HIPing route produces a material with superior cavitation erosion and order of magnitude greater corrosion resistance to its cast counterpart. % 38 words
\end{abstract}
\begin{keyword}
3 to 5 keywords here, in the form: keyword \sep keyword
\end{keyword}
\end{frontmatter}
\section{Introduction}
\label{sec:orgaaddca7}
The microstrucuture of stellite alloys consists of a cobalt-chromium solid solution and mixed carbides composed of a metal radical and carbon as listed in \ref{tab:stellite_carbides}.
\cite{nevilleAqueousCorrosionCobalt2010}
\cite{nevilleAqueousCorrosionCobalt2010}
\begin{table}
\protect\caption{Mixed carbides present in Stellite alloys\label{tab:stellite_carbides}}
\begin{tabular}{|l|c|c|}
\toprule
Carbide & Comment & Citation \\
\midrule
${M}_{3}{C}_{2}$ & Chromium carbide which forms at low Cr/C ratio & \cite{nevilleAqueousCorrosionCobalt2010} \\
${M}_{7}{C}_{3}$ & Chromium content carbide which forms at a slightly higher Cr/C ratio & \cite{nevilleAqueousCorrosionCobalt2010} \\
${M}_{23}{C}_{6}$ & Chromium content carbide which forms at an higher Cr/C ratio & \cite{nevilleAqueousCorrosionCobalt2010} \\
\hline
${M}_6{C}$ & refractory metal carbide & \cite{nevilleAqueousCorrosionCobalt2010} \\
${M}{C}$ & refractory metal carbide & \cite{nevilleAqueousCorrosionCobalt2010} \\
\bottomrule
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
In cobalt-based and iron-based hardfacing alloys, mixed carbides present in the microstructure are composed of a metal radical and carbon for example M7C3, M23C6, M3C2 and MC In hardfacings with a fine microstructure the carbides may be too small to have their corrosion behaviour determined as they are formed in small quantities surrounded by the matrix phase. [27, 28]. The pure commercial versions of these carbides Cr3C2, Cr7C3, Cr23C6, Mo2C, NbC and TiC manufactured by sintering are too brittle to be used as hardfacings however, their large size will enable the corrosion behaviour to be evaluated.
\section{Style guide}
\label{sec:org47e5123}
\subsection{Page and text formatting}
\label{sec:org05098f9}
If you use the provided templates, the style requirements are already the default settings --- so don't tinker with them! This \LaTeX{} template is based on the Elsevier class but using 11pt (instead of the standard 10pt). We use the single-column format for practical reasons.
The document has to be prepared for the UK standard paper of A4 size with a text area of 16.45\textasciitilde{}cm by 21.9\textasciitilde{}cm using single columns at a `normal' serif font (e.g., Times New Roman or Cambria) with font size 11pt.
\subsection{Word count}
\label{sec:org1744806}
\label{S:Wordcount}
The expected word count is between 5000 and 7000 words. The word count includes everything from the start of the Introduction to the end of the Conclusions, including text in figure captions and tables. Excluded from the word count is the front matter (from the title to the end of the abstracts and key words) and the end matter (acknowledgements, references, appendices).
If you try to cheat the word count by having a lot of important information in appendices: remember that appendices only provide supplementary material, not essential material for the assessment. The markers are not required to read any appendix during the marking of the dissertation.
\subsubsection{Section and item numbering}
\label{sec:orgac2f9d5}
Paragraphs are justified on both sides and start with an indent. Section numbering is numeric, with `section' headings in bold but sub-section and subsub-section headings in italics. Each heading is preceded and followed by some space (about 6pt or half a line).
Figures, tables, and equations are numbered consecutively: Figure 1, Figure 2, Table 1, Table 2, (1), (2), and so on. That means that they are not sub-numbered for each section, so no Figure 1.2. However, a figure might have two or more graphs. In that case, each graph is labelled a), b) and so on. Similarly, equations can be single equations such as
\begin{equation}\label{eq1}
e = m c^2
\end{equation}
or they could be a set of equations, using the environment `subequation' from the subcaption package,
\begin{subequations} \label{eq2}
\begin{gather}
C_p = \frac{p}{\frac{1}{2} \rho U^2} \label{eq2a} \\
C_P = \frac{P}{\frac{1}{2} \rho A U^3} \label{eq2b}
\end{gather}
\end{subequations}
When referring to these objects in the text, you can use either `figure\textasciitilde{}\ref{exFigure}', `Figure\textasciitilde{}\ref{exFigure}', or `Fig\textasciitilde{}\ref{exFigure}', as long as you do it consistently. A specific graph in a multi-graph figure would be referred to as, for example Fig.\textasciitilde{}2b. Likewise, for referring to a table, you would use table, Table, or Tab.\textasciitilde{}\ref{Tab:method}, and equations are referred to as Eq.\textasciitilde{}(\ref{eq1}), Equations\textasciitilde{}(\ref{eq2}) or equation\textasciitilde{}(\ref{eq2b}).
\subsection{References}
\label{sec:org533e9ca}
These must follow the style of the journal used in the `References' at the end of this template, with an example for citing a journal article given by \cite{article}, for a contribution to conference proceedings by \cite{proc1}, and for a book by \cite{book1} or a chapter \citep{bookchapter}. If you do need to refer to websites, for example for data sources, an example is given by \cite{MIDAS} or \citep{web1}.
You can create your own *.bib file using EndNote or Mendeley and then extract and format the cited references using BibTeX.
\section{Methodology and Apparatus}
\label{sec:org1fb1a9e}
Clear description of how you approached the problem and what you did (NOT, what somebody else should do\ldots{}).
This might start with an introductory paragraph providing a high-level description of your overall approach, then some specific subsections on your data sources, the methods to obtain your primary research data, sections on the instrumentation (including their accuracy and precision) or simulation software used, followed by a section how you used those tools, and complemented by an introduction to any more advanced analysis method you might have applied for the secondary analysis.
Especially in the description of your experiments or other activities, tables can be useful to summarise the key information, such as Table \ref{Tab:method}. Make sure it is complete but not too complex. Consider putting large tables in an appendix, but keep in mind the role of appendices mentioned in Section\textasciitilde{}\ref{S:Wordcount}.
\section{Results}
\label{sec:orga78acbf}
Describe the results and the results of their analysis
\subsection{Results and primary analysis}
\label{sec:orgaaf6c24}
Present the primary results in sufficient detail that the reader can get a good insight into what you obtained from your experiments or field work (or whatever you did), but avoid showing many similar graphs. Only show key samples, for example a typical case and a few unusual cases. Here, you will need to make good use of figures, such as that in Fig.\textasciitilde{}\ref{exFigure}
\begin{figure}
\begin{centering}
\includegraphics[width=0.7\textwidth]{CP_vs_U_Turb_Farm}
\par\end{centering}
\protect\caption{Range of observed power output from a single turbine (blue shaded and cross-hatched region) and from an entire wind farm at the same site (red shaded region) against wind speed. Both are normalised by the rated power and number of turbines contributing to the power output (Data source: Vattenfall).}
\label{exFigure}
\end{figure}
\subsection{Secondary analysis}
\label{sec:org3ffa987}
Try to build up your many results into a systematic analysis which distills the main results and presents them in a clear way in well-designed figures.
\subsection{Uncertainty analysis}
\label{sec:org5ce150e}
Remember: any result is only credible if the reader knows how accurate your results are likely to be. This needs an error analysis or uncertainty analysis of your results.
\section{Discussion}
\label{sec:org4b95c58}
Here you need to draw together your various results, discuss what they mean and how reliable they are, using your uncertainty analysis and any other aspects which might limit your results such as explicit or implicit assumptions in your methodology. Then discuss how your results contribute to addressing your aims and objectives, and what your contribution to the wider field is.
There are three typical ways how the Discussion can be presented in a paper. The most extensive is to have the Discussion in its own section. From an intellectual point, this would be the recommended approach, at least to start with: it forces you to separate mentally your critical evaluation of your results from the evidence (your results) on which you base the discussion).
Another option is to merge the results and discussion into a single `Results and Discussion' section, but then you run the danger of mixing up evidence and interpretation and your lose strength in your argument.
A third option is to merge the discussion with the conclusions. Here, you run the risk of your main conclusions becoming buried in the discussion, and the reader has to guess a bit as to what your main contribution was.
\section{Conclusions}
\label{sec:org4df83f5}
A fairly concise section which summarises your main findings from your results and discussion sections, identifies your contribution to the field, and suggests some further work.
\bibliographystyle{elsarticle-num}
\bibliography{references}
\appendix
\section{Essential appendices}
\label{sec:org4512925}
Essential appendices; ie, detail without which the main paper is difficult to understand should be included here.
\section{List of further material in the Work Progress Report}
\label{sec:org0d50b38}
All working material and non-essential appendices must be submitted separately as the `Work Progress Report'. There is no need to refer to that material. However, if you feel that certain sections or files in that report would be useful to the reader, you can list here that material and how to find it in the Work Progress Report submission.
\end{document}

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\babel@toc {english}{}\relax
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {0.0.1}Fundamental Setup (Encoding, Fonts, Language)\hfill {}\textsc {ignore\_heading}}{1}{subsubsection.0.0.1}%
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {1}Introduction}{2}{section.1}%
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {2}Style guide}{2}{section.2}%
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {2.1}Page and text formatting}{2}{subsection.2.1}%
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {2.2}Word count}{3}{subsection.2.2}%
\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {2.2.1}Section and item numbering}{3}{subsubsection.2.2.1}%
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {2.3}References}{3}{subsection.2.3}%
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {3}Methodology and Apparatus}{3}{section.3}%
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {4}Results}{4}{section.4}%
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {4.1}Results and primary analysis}{4}{subsection.4.1}%
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {4.2}Secondary analysis}{4}{subsection.4.2}%
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {4.3}Uncertainty analysis}{4}{subsection.4.3}%
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {5}Discussion}{4}{section.5}%
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {6}Conclusions}{5}{section.6}%
\let \numberline \tmptocnumberline
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {Appendix~A}Essential appendices}{5}{appendix.A}%
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {Appendix~B}List of further material in the Work Progress Report}{5}{appendix.B}%

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# What the heck is going on
* Fundamental Setup (Encoding, Fonts, Language) :ignore_heading:
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage[utf8]{inputenc} % Set input encoding to UTF-8
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage[T1]{fontenc} % Use modern 8-bit font encoding
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage{textcomp} % Provides extra symbols
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage{mathptmx} % Use Times-like fonts for text and math
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#+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage[english]{babel} % Language-specific settings and hyphenation
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage{csquotes} % Context-sensitive quotation marks (works well with babel)
# What the heck is going on
* Page Layout & Geometry :ignore_heading:
#+LaTeX_HEADER: % \usepackage[left=4cm, right=2cm, top=2cm, bottom=2cm]{geometry} % Example geometry settings
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage{fancyhdr} % For custom headers and footers
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \pagestyle{fancy} % Apply the fancy page style
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage{setspace} % For adjusting line spacing (e.g., \onehalfspacing)
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage{titlesec} % For customizing section and chapter titles
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage{pdflscape} % For creating landscape pages
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage{afterpage} % Execute commands after the current page is shipped out
# What the heck is going on
* Mathematics :ignore_heading:
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage{amsmath} % Core package for math environments and commands
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage{amssymb} % Provides additional math symbols
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage{mathtools} % Extends amsmath with fixes and more tools
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage{calc} % Allows for arithmetic in LaTeX commands
# What the heck is going on
* Graphics, Figures, and Floats :ignore_heading:
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage{graphicx} % For including images
# #+LaTeX_HEADER: \graphicspath{{expt/}} % Set path for graphics files
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage{subcaption} % For subfigures within a figure environment
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage{wrapfig} % To wrap text around figures
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage{rotating} % To rotate elements, like figures and tables
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage{float} % Improves float control (e.g., [H] placement)
# What the heck is going on
* Tables :ignore_heading:
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage{booktabs} % For professional-quality table rules
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage{longtable} % For tables that span multiple pages
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage{multirow} % Create table cells that span multiple rows
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage{makecell} % For line breaks and advanced formatting within table cells
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage[flushleft]{threeparttablex} % For tables with notes
# What the heck is going on
* Captions & Typography :ignore_heading:
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage{subcaption} % Advanced control over subcaptions
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage{caption} % Advanced control over caption appearance
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage{capt-of} % To use \captionof for captions outside floats
#+LaTeX_HEADER: % (often not needed if `caption` package is used)
#+LaTeX_HEADER: % required by Org
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage[normalem]{ulem} % For underlining, striking out text, etc.
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage{mfirstuc} % For capitalizing the first letter of a word
# What the heck is going on
* Document Structure & References :ignore_heading:
# # Elsevier insists on using natbib for somereason.
# #+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage{natbib}
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \biboptions{square,numbers,sort&compress,longnamesfirst,angle,semicolon}
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage[acronym, nonumberlist]{glossaries} % For creating glossaries and lists of acronyms
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage{minitoc} % To create mini tables of contents for each chapter/section
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage{pdfpages} % To include external PDF documents
# What the heck is going on
* Hyperlinks (LOAD LAST) :ignore_heading:
#+LaTeX_HEADER: % For clickable links, bookmarks, and document metadata
# #+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage[colorlinks=true,linkcolor=black, citecolor=blue, urlcolor=blue]{hyperref}
# What the hackety heck is going on?
#

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@ -1,4 +1,7 @@
#+LaTeX_CLASS: elsarticle #+LaTeX_CLASS: elsarticle
#+EXPORT_FILE_NAME: ./src/report.tex
#+latex_compiler: pdflatex
#+cite_export:
#+TITLE: Influence of manufacturing process on Cavitation Erosion in CoCrWMoCFeNiSiMn (Stellite 1) alloys #+TITLE: Influence of manufacturing process on Cavitation Erosion in CoCrWMoCFeNiSiMn (Stellite 1) alloys
#+OPTIONS: author:nil date:nil title:nil toc:nil #+OPTIONS: author:nil date:nil title:nil toc:nil
@ -10,6 +13,8 @@
#+BEGIN_SRC emacs-lisp :exports none :results none :eval always #+BEGIN_SRC emacs-lisp :exports none :results none :eval always
(with-eval-after-load 'ox-latex (with-eval-after-load 'ox-latex
(setq org-latex-default-packages-alist
(delete '("" "biblatex" t ("pdflatex")) org-latex-default-packages-alist))
(add-to-list 'org-latex-classes (add-to-list 'org-latex-classes
'("elsarticle" "\\documentclass[3p, 11pt]{elsarticle}\n[NO-DEFAULT-PACKAGES]\n[PACKAGES]\n[EXTRA]\n" '("elsarticle" "\\documentclass[3p, 11pt]{elsarticle}\n[NO-DEFAULT-PACKAGES]\n[PACKAGES]\n[EXTRA]\n"
("\\section{%s}" . "\\section*{%s}") ("\\section{%s}" . "\\section*{%s}")
@ -79,12 +84,33 @@
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage{mfirstuc} % For capitalizing the first letter of a word #+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage{mfirstuc} % For capitalizing the first letter of a word
# What the heck is going on # What the heck is going on
** Document Structure & References :ignore_heading: ** References :ignore_heading:
# # Elsevier insists on using natbib for somereason. # # Elsevier insists on using natbib for somereason.
# #+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage{natbib} # #+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage{natbib}
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \biboptions{square,numbers,sort&compress,longnamesfirst,angle,semicolon}
# natbib.sty is loaded by default. However, natbib options can be
# provided with \biboptions{...} command. Following options are
# valid:
# round - round parentheses are used (default)
# square - square brackets are used [option]
# curly - curly braces are used {option}
# angle - angle brackets are used <option>
# semicolon - multiple citations separated by semi-colon (default)
# colon - same as semicolon, an earlier confusion
# comma - separated by comma
# authoryear - selects author-year citations (default)
# numbers- selects numerical citations
# super - numerical citations as superscripts
# sort - sorts multiple citations according to order in ref. list
# sort&compress - like sort, but also compresses numerical citations
# compress - compresses without sorting
# longnamesfirst - makes first citation full author list
# \biboptions{longnamesfirst,comma}
#+LaTeX_HEADER_EXTRA: \biboptions{square,comma,sort&compress}
** Document Structure :ignore_heading:
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage[acronym, nonumberlist]{glossaries} % For creating glossaries and lists of acronyms #+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage[acronym, nonumberlist]{glossaries} % For creating glossaries and lists of acronyms
#+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage{minitoc} % To create mini tables of contents for each chapter/section #+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage{minitoc} % To create mini tables of contents for each chapter/section
@ -105,172 +131,6 @@
# #
# What the heck is going on # What the heck is going on
** Frontmatter :ignore_heading:
#+LaTeX: \lhead{Vishakh Pradeep Kumar}
#+LaTeX: \rhead{\thepage}
#+LaTeX: \lfoot{MSc Adv. Mechanical Engineering}
#+LaTeX: \journal{MSc Advanced Mechanical Engineering}
#+LaTeX: \begin{frontmatter}
# %% Title, authors and addresses
#+LaTeX: \title{Dissertation title}
#+LaTeX: \author{Vishakh Pradeep Kumar\fnref{label2}}
#+LaTeX: \ead{vp2039@hw.ac.uk}
#+LaTeX: \fntext[label2]{Student ID : H00428384 }
#+LaTeX: \author{\\ Supervisor: Dr Rehan Ahmed}
#+LaTeX: \address{Heriot-Watt University, School of Engineering and Physical Sciences, Mechanical Engineering, Dubai}
#+LaTeX: \begin{abstract}
#+LaTeX: A concise summary of the work and main results in no more than 200 words.
#+LaTeX: The lifespan and reliability of components subjected to severe cavitation and corrosion erosion depend critically on material properties and failure mechanisms. The microstructure, and hence performance, of wear-resistant alloys used in such aggressive conditions is not dictated by chemical composition alone but is critically shaped by manufacturing process. % 48 words
#+LaTeX: Cobalt-based Stellite alloys are a primary choice for these applications, deriving their exceptional wear resistance from hard carbide phases embedded within a tough cobalt-alloy matrix. Traditionally, these alloys are produced by casting, which often produces a coarse and brittle carbide network. In contrast, powder metallurgy routes, such as Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP), yield a significantly more refined and homogeneous microstructure, offering a pathway to superior durability. %% 66 words
#+LaTeX: However it remains a critical question whether the microstructural refinement achieved through HIPing enhances toughness and fatigue resistance in high-carbon alloys like Stellite 1, particularly in the context of cavitation erosion. % 31 words
#+LaTeX: Here we show, by directly comparing a cast and a HIPed cobalt alloy (Co–30Cr–12W–2.5C by wt %), that the HIPing route produces a material with superior cavitation erosion and order of magnitude greater corrosion resistance to its cast counterpart. % 38 words
#+LaTeX: \end{abstract}
#+LaTeX: \begin{keyword}
#+LaTeX: 3 to 5 keywords here, in the form: keyword \sep keyword
#+LaTeX: \end{keyword}
#+LaTeX: \end{frontmatter}
*** COMMENT How to write a Keyword list
- Abrasive wear
- Cobalt based alloys
- Fatigue;
- HIPing;
- Stellite 1
*** COMMENT How to write an Abstract :ignore:ignore_heading:
# Mostly cribbed from Dr Mutassim
Readers use an abstract to rapidly assess a paper's relevance, particularly when reviewing numerous search results. A successful abstract persuades its target audience to read the full paper, and the gold standard is one so clear that its message can be grasped even by a sleep-deprived, over-caffeinated brain. This level of informative clarity is achieved through a highly structured, concise, and perhaps unapologetically formulaic composition, reserving any literary flair for the paper itself.
Abstracts are quite limited in word length (submition guidelines limit it to 200 words) and the below checklist/structure is suggested as a template.
- [ ] One or two sentences providing a basic introduction to the field, comprehensible to a scientist in any discipline
- [ ] Two or three sentences of more detailed background, comprehensible to scientists in related disciplines
- [ ] One sentence clearly stating the general problem being addressed by the particular study.
- [ ] One sentence summarizing the main results (with the words "here we show" or their equivalent).
- [ ] Two or three sentences explaining what the main results reveals in direct comparison to what was thought to be the case previously, or how the main result adds to previous knowledge
- [ ] One of more sentences to put the results into a more general context
**** One or two sentences providing a basic introduction to the field, comprehensible to a scientist in any discipline :ignore:ignore_heading:
# ahmedInfluenceReHIPingStructure2013
Developing materials that can withstand extreme wear and degradation is a central challenge in materials science, with profound implications for the longevity and reliability of critical industrial components. High-performance alloys are essential for manufacturing parts that operate under such aggressive conditions.
# yuComparisonTriboMechanicalProperties2007
The performance and reliability of components in demanding industrial environments depend critically on the materials from which they are made. A material's ultimate properties are not solely determined by its chemical composition but are profoundly influenced by its manufacturing process.
# yuinfluencemanufacturingprocess2008
The operational lifespan of critical components in industries from aerospace to energy is often limited by material wear and failure.
Consequently, the development of robust, wear-resistant materials is paramount, where the manufacturing process itself plays a decisive role in defining final performance.
# yuTriboMechanicalEvaluationsCobaltBased2007
The development of materials capable of withstanding severe mechanical wear and stress is fundamental to advancing technology in critical sectors like energy and manufacturing.
# Eww
A material's resilience is not dictated by its composition alone but is critically shaped by its microstructural architecture, which is controlled by the manufacturing process.
**** Two or three sentences of more detailed background, comprehensible to scientists in related disciplines :ignore:ignore_heading:
# Cobalt-based Stellite alloys, are a primary choice for these applications, deriving their exceptional wear resistance from hard carbide phases embedded within a tough cobalt-alloy matrix. Traditionally, these alloys are produced by casting, which while cost-effective, often produces a coarse & brittle carbide network as well as being susceptible to preferential corrosive attack. In contrast, powder metallurgy routes, such as Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP) can produce a significantly more refined and homogeneous microstructure, offering a pathway to superior durability.
# ahmedInfluenceReHIPingStructure2013
Cobalt-based Stellite alloys, renowned for their exceptional hardness and corrosion resistance, are a cornerstone material for these applications. These alloys are often produced via powder metallurgy consolidated by Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP), a process that subjects the material to high temperature and isostatic pressure to reduce porosity and enhance mechanical properties.
# yuComparisonTriboMechanicalProperties2007
Cobalt-based alloys, such as the Stellite family, are widely used for their exceptional resistance to wear and corrosion due to a hard carbide phase embedded within a tough cobalt matrix. Traditionally, these alloys are produced by casting, a process that is cost-effective but often results in a coarse, brittle microstructure. An alternative route is powder consolidation via Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIPing), which can produce finer, more homogeneous structures.
# yuinfluencemanufacturingprocess2008
Cobalt-based Stellite alloys are a primary choice for these applications, deriving their properties from a microstructure of hard carbide particles in a ductile cobalt-chromium matrix. Stellite 6 (Co–28Cr–4.5W–1C), a widely used variant, is typically produced by casting, which yields a coarse and brittle carbide network. Powder metallurgy combined with Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIPing) offers an alternative route to produce a more refined and homogeneous microstructure.
# yuTriboMechanicalEvaluationsCobaltBased2007
Cobalt-based alloys, particularly the Stellite family, are benchmark materials for such applications, prized for the high hardness imparted by a network of chromium and tungsten carbides. Conventionally produced by casting, these alloys often suffer from brittleness due to a coarse carbide structure. An alternative route, Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIPing) of pre-alloyed powder, can produce a more refined microstructure.
**** One sentence clearly stating the general problem being addressed by the particular study. :ignore:ignore_heading:
However it remains a critical question whether the microstructural refinement achieved through HIPing enhances toughness and fatigue resistance in high-carbon alloys like Stellite 1, particularly in the context of cavitation erosion.
# ahmedInfluenceReHIPingStructure2013
However, while the benefits of a single HIP cycle are well-established, the potential for further microstructural and mechanical property enhancement through a subsequent 're-HIPing' treatment has remained largely unexplored.
# yuComparisonTriboMechanicalProperties2007
However, for high-carbon alloys designed for severe wear, it has been unclear whether the microstructural refinement from HIPing could enhance toughness without compromising the wear performance endowed by the coarse carbide structure of cast products.
# yuinfluencemanufacturingprocess2008
However, it remains poorly understood how the microstructural refinement from HIPing affects the intricate balance between hardness, impact toughness, and contact fatigue resistance in medium-carbon alloys like Stellite 6.
# yuTriboMechanicalEvaluationsCobaltBased2007
However, it has remained a critical question whether the microstructural refinement achieved through HIPing can enhance toughness without significantly compromising the excellent wear resistance conferred by the coarse carbides in their cast counterparts.
**** One sentence summarizing the main results (with the words "here we show" or their equivalent). :ignore:ignore_heading:
Here we show, by directly comparing a cast and a HIPed cobalt alloy (Co–30Cr–12W–2.5C by wt %), that the HIPing route produces a material with superior cavitation erosion and order of magnitude greater corrosion resistance to its cast counterpart.
# ahmedInfluenceReHIPingStructure2013
Here we show that subjecting HIP-consolidated Stellite 4, 6, and 20 alloys to a second re-HIPing cycle induces significant carbide coarsening and matrix strengthening, leading to concurrent improvements in hardness, indentation modulus, and wear resistance.
# yuComparisonTriboMechanicalProperties2007
Here we show, by directly comparing a cast and a HIPed cobalt alloy (Co–33Cr–17.5W–2.5C by wt %), that the HIPing route produces a material with an order-of-magnitude greater impact resistance and superior contact fatigue performance, all while maintaining equivalent hardness and wear resistance to its cast counterpart.
# yuinfluencemanufacturingprocess2008
Here we show that while HIPing significantly enhances the impact toughness and contact fatigue of Stellite 6 compared to its cast counterpart, the fatigue resistance does not scale with toughness and is instead dominated by the alloy's intrinsically lower hardness and carbide volume fraction.
# yuTriboMechanicalEvaluationsCobaltBased2007
Here we show that for a Co−30Cr−14W−1C alloy, the HIPing process yields a material with substantially improved impact toughness and contact fatigue performance while largely preserving the high hardness and suffering only a slight reduction in abrasive wear resistance compared to the cast version.
**** TODO Two or three sentences explaining what the main results reveals in direct comparison to what was thought to be the case previously, or how the main result adds to previous knowledge :ignore:ignore_heading:
#+NAME: findings_add_knowledge
#+BEGIN_SRC latex
This research reveals that the refined microstructure of alloys processed via Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP) successfully mitigates the classic trade-off between wear resistance and toughness. The fine, discrete carbides in the HIPed structure resist the catastrophic brittle fracture that plagues the coarse carbide networks found in conventionally cast materials. This fundamentally alters the dominant failure mechanism from carbide fracture to more ductile modes like matrix ploughing and carbide pull-out, enhancing energy absorption and dramatically improving impact properties.
#+END_SRC
# ahmedInfluenceReHIPingStructure2013
These findings demonstrate that re-HIPing is not merely a densification process but acts as an effective thermal treatment for tuning the alloy's microstructure. The observed solid solution strengthening of the cobalt matrix, coupled with the coarsening of the strengthening carbide phases, provides a clear microstructural basis for the enhanced tribomechanical performance.
# yuComparisonTriboMechanicalProperties2007
This result directly challenges the assumption that achieving maximum wear resistance in this class of alloy necessitates a trade-off with toughness. We reveal that the refined carbide morphology in the HIPed alloy fundamentally alters the dominant failure mechanism from brittle carbide fracture to matrix ploughing and carbide pull-out, which explains the dramatic improvement in impact properties.
# yuinfluencemanufacturingprocess2008
This finding reveals a complex and non-linear interdependency of tribological properties, challenging the common design principle that a substantial increase in toughness should directly translate to superior fatigue performance. In contrast to high-carbide alloys like Stellite 20, our results demonstrate that in medium-carbide systems, bulk hardness can be the limiting factor for contact fatigue, even in a microstructure optimized for impact resistance.
# yuTriboMechanicalEvaluationsCobaltBased2007
This outcome demonstrates a successful mitigation of the classic wear-resistance-versus-toughness trade-off. The fine, discrete carbides in the HIPed microstructure resist the catastrophic fracture that plagues the coarse carbide networks in the cast alloy, thereby providing a mechanism for enhanced energy absorption and fatigue life.
**** TODO One of more sentences to put the results into a more general context :ignore:ignore_heading:
These findings show that HIPing is a viable processing strategy for creating components that are simultaneously hard and tough, moving beyond the classic trade-off between wear resistance and toughness,
s a key design parameter for engineering superior materials. This approach allows for creating components that are simultaneously hard and tough, optimizing service life in applications requiring both wear and impact resistance.
# ahmedInfluenceReHIPingStructure2013
Our results establish re-HIPing as a viable and straightforward post-processing strategy to further optimize the service life and performance of cobalt-based components, offering a pathway to creating more durable materials for demanding engineering applications.
# yuComparisonTriboMechanicalProperties2007
These findings establish that the choice of processing route is a critical tool for engineering superior material properties, enabling the design of next-generation components that are simultaneously ultra-hard and exceptionally tough for high-stress applications.
# yuinfluencemanufacturingprocess2008
These results provide critical insight for tailoring material processing routes for specific engineering applications, highlighting that a holistic approach—considering the complex interplay between multiple mechanical properties—is necessary to design the next generation of high-performance materials.
# yuTriboMechanicalEvaluationsCobaltBased2007
Our results provide a clear processing strategy for engineering cobalt-based alloys with a more versatile combination of properties, enabling their use in higher-stress applications where resistance to both steady wear and mechanical shock is required.
** COMMENT General Style Guide ** COMMENT General Style Guide
The ‘dissertation’ is in the form of a journal paper: The ‘dissertation’ is in the form of a journal paper:
@ -291,6 +151,172 @@ The ‘dissertation’ is in the form of a journal paper:
References 25 - 35. References 25 - 35.
HAHAHAHAHHAHAHAHHAHAH HAHAHAHAHHAHAHAHHAHAH
* Frontmatter :ignore_heading:
#+LaTeX: \lhead{Vishakh Pradeep Kumar}
#+LaTeX: \rhead{\thepage}
#+LaTeX: \lfoot{MSc Adv. Mechanical Engineering}
#+LaTeX: \journal{MSc Advanced Mechanical Engineering}
#+LaTeX: \begin{frontmatter}
# %% Title, authors and addresses
#+LaTeX: \title{Dissertation title}
#+LaTeX: \author{Vishakh Pradeep Kumar\fnref{label2}}
#+LaTeX: \ead{vp2039@hw.ac.uk}
#+LaTeX: \fntext[label2]{Student ID : H00428384 }
#+LaTeX: \author{\\ Supervisor: Dr Rehan Ahmed}
#+LaTeX: \address{Heriot-Watt University, School of Engineering and Physical Sciences, Mechanical Engineering, Dubai}
#+LaTeX: \begin{abstract}
# 48 words
The lifespan and reliability of components subjected to severe cavitation and corrosion erosion depend critically on material properties and failure mechanisms. The microstructure, and hence performance, of wear-resistant alloys used in such aggressive conditions is not dictated by chemical composition alone but is critically shaped by manufacturing process.
Cobalt-based Stellite alloys are a primary choice for these applications, deriving their exceptional wear resistance from hard carbide phases embedded within a tough cobalt-alloy matrix. Traditionally, these alloys are produced by casting, which often produces a coarse and brittle carbide network. In contrast, powder metallurgy routes, such as Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP), yield a significantly more refined and homogeneous microstructure, offering a pathway to superior durability.
However it remains a critical question whether the microstructural refinement achieved through HIPing enhances toughness and fatigue resistance in high carbon alloys like Stellite 1, particularly in the context of cavitation erosion.
Here we show, by directly comparing a cast and a HIPed cobalt alloy (Co-30Cr-12W-2.5C by wt%), that the HIPing route produces a material with superior cavitation erosion and order of magnitude greater corrosion resistance to its cast counterpart.
#+LaTeX: \end{abstract}
#+LaTeX: \begin{keyword}
#+LaTeX: 3 to 5 keywords here, in the form: keyword \sep keyword
#+LaTeX: \end{keyword}
#+LaTeX: \end{frontmatter}
** COMMENT How to write a Keyword list
- Abrasive wear
- Cobalt based alloys
- Fatigue;
- HIPing;
- Stellite 1
** COMMENT How to write an Abstract :ignore:ignore_heading:
# Mostly cribbed from Dr Mutassim
Readers use an abstract to rapidly assess a paper's relevance, particularly when reviewing numerous search results. A successful abstract persuades its target audience to read the full paper, and the gold standard is one so clear that its message can be grasped even by a sleep-deprived, over-caffeinated brain. This level of informative clarity is achieved through a highly structured, concise, and perhaps unapologetically formulaic composition, reserving any literary flair for the paper itself.
Abstracts are quite limited in word length (submition guidelines limit it to 200 words) and the below checklist/structure is suggested as a template.
- [ ] One or two sentences providing a basic introduction to the field, comprehensible to a scientist in any discipline
- [ ] Two or three sentences of more detailed background, comprehensible to scientists in related disciplines
- [ ] One sentence clearly stating the general problem being addressed by the particular study.
- [ ] One sentence summarizing the main results (with the words "here we show" or their equivalent).
- [ ] Two or three sentences explaining what the main results reveals in direct comparison to what was thought to be the case previously, or how the main result adds to previous knowledge
- [ ] One of more sentences to put the results into a more general context
*** One or two sentences providing a basic introduction to the field, comprehensible to a scientist in any discipline :ignore:ignore_heading:
# ahmedInfluenceReHIPingStructure2013
Developing materials that can withstand extreme wear and degradation is a central challenge in materials science, with profound implications for the longevity and reliability of critical industrial components. High-performance alloys are essential for manufacturing parts that operate under such aggressive conditions.
# yuComparisonTriboMechanicalProperties2007
The performance and reliability of components in demanding industrial environments depend critically on the materials from which they are made. A material's ultimate properties are not solely determined by its chemical composition but are profoundly influenced by its manufacturing process.
# yuinfluencemanufacturingprocess2008
The operational lifespan of critical components in industries from aerospace to energy is often limited by material wear and failure.
Consequently, the development of robust, wear-resistant materials is paramount, where the manufacturing process itself plays a decisive role in defining final performance.
# yuTriboMechanicalEvaluationsCobaltBased2007
The development of materials capable of withstanding severe mechanical wear and stress is fundamental to advancing technology in critical sectors like energy and manufacturing.
# Eww
A material's resilience is not dictated by its composition alone but is critically shaped by its microstructural architecture, which is controlled by the manufacturing process.
*** Two or three sentences of more detailed background, comprehensible to scientists in related disciplines :ignore:ignore_heading:
# Cobalt-based Stellite alloys, are a primary choice for these applications, deriving their exceptional wear resistance from hard carbide phases embedded within a tough cobalt-alloy matrix. Traditionally, these alloys are produced by casting, which while cost-effective, often produces a coarse & brittle carbide network as well as being susceptible to preferential corrosive attack. In contrast, powder metallurgy routes, such as Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP) can produce a significantly more refined and homogeneous microstructure, offering a pathway to superior durability.
# ahmedInfluenceReHIPingStructure2013
Cobalt-based Stellite alloys, renowned for their exceptional hardness and corrosion resistance, are a cornerstone material for these applications. These alloys are often produced via powder metallurgy consolidated by Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP), a process that subjects the material to high temperature and isostatic pressure to reduce porosity and enhance mechanical properties.
# yuComparisonTriboMechanicalProperties2007
Cobalt-based alloys, such as the Stellite family, are widely used for their exceptional resistance to wear and corrosion due to a hard carbide phase embedded within a tough cobalt matrix. Traditionally, these alloys are produced by casting, a process that is cost-effective but often results in a coarse, brittle microstructure. An alternative route is powder consolidation via Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIPing), which can produce finer, more homogeneous structures.
# yuinfluencemanufacturingprocess2008
Cobalt-based Stellite alloys are a primary choice for these applications, deriving their properties from a microstructure of hard carbide particles in a ductile cobalt-chromium matrix. Stellite 6 (Co–28Cr–4.5W–1C), a widely used variant, is typically produced by casting, which yields a coarse and brittle carbide network. Powder metallurgy combined with Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIPing) offers an alternative route to produce a more refined and homogeneous microstructure.
# yuTriboMechanicalEvaluationsCobaltBased2007
Cobalt-based alloys, particularly the Stellite family, are benchmark materials for such applications, prized for the high hardness imparted by a network of chromium and tungsten carbides. Conventionally produced by casting, these alloys often suffer from brittleness due to a coarse carbide structure. An alternative route, Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIPing) of pre-alloyed powder, can produce a more refined microstructure.
*** One sentence clearly stating the general problem being addressed by the particular study. :ignore:ignore_heading:
However it remains a critical question whether the microstructural refinement achieved through HIPing enhances toughness and fatigue resistance in high-carbon alloys like Stellite 1, particularly in the context of cavitation erosion.
# ahmedInfluenceReHIPingStructure2013
However, while the benefits of a single HIP cycle are well-established, the potential for further microstructural and mechanical property enhancement through a subsequent 're-HIPing' treatment has remained largely unexplored.
# yuComparisonTriboMechanicalProperties2007
However, for high-carbon alloys designed for severe wear, it has been unclear whether the microstructural refinement from HIPing could enhance toughness without compromising the wear performance endowed by the coarse carbide structure of cast products.
# yuinfluencemanufacturingprocess2008
However, it remains poorly understood how the microstructural refinement from HIPing affects the intricate balance between hardness, impact toughness, and contact fatigue resistance in medium-carbon alloys like Stellite 6.
# yuTriboMechanicalEvaluationsCobaltBased2007
However, it has remained a critical question whether the microstructural refinement achieved through HIPing can enhance toughness without significantly compromising the excellent wear resistance conferred by the coarse carbides in their cast counterparts.
*** One sentence summarizing the main results (with the words "here we show" or their equivalent). :ignore:ignore_heading:
Here we show, by directly comparing a cast and a HIPed cobalt alloy (Co–30Cr–12W–2.5C by wt %), that the HIPing route produces a material with superior cavitation erosion and order of magnitude greater corrosion resistance to its cast counterpart.
# ahmedInfluenceReHIPingStructure2013
Here we show that subjecting HIP-consolidated Stellite 4, 6, and 20 alloys to a second re-HIPing cycle induces significant carbide coarsening and matrix strengthening, leading to concurrent improvements in hardness, indentation modulus, and wear resistance.
# yuComparisonTriboMechanicalProperties2007
Here we show, by directly comparing a cast and a HIPed cobalt alloy (Co–33Cr–17.5W–2.5C by wt %), that the HIPing route produces a material with an order-of-magnitude greater impact resistance and superior contact fatigue performance, all while maintaining equivalent hardness and wear resistance to its cast counterpart.
# yuinfluencemanufacturingprocess2008
Here we show that while HIPing significantly enhances the impact toughness and contact fatigue of Stellite 6 compared to its cast counterpart, the fatigue resistance does not scale with toughness and is instead dominated by the alloy's intrinsically lower hardness and carbide volume fraction.
# yuTriboMechanicalEvaluationsCobaltBased2007
Here we show that for a Co−30Cr−14W−1C alloy, the HIPing process yields a material with substantially improved impact toughness and contact fatigue performance while largely preserving the high hardness and suffering only a slight reduction in abrasive wear resistance compared to the cast version.
*** TODO Two or three sentences explaining what the main results reveals in direct comparison to what was thought to be the case previously, or how the main result adds to previous knowledge :ignore:ignore_heading:
#+NAME: findings_add_knowledge
#+BEGIN_SRC latex
This research reveals that the refined microstructure of alloys processed via Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP) successfully mitigates the classic trade-off between wear resistance and toughness. The fine, discrete carbides in the HIPed structure resist the catastrophic brittle fracture that plagues the coarse carbide networks found in conventionally cast materials. This fundamentally alters the dominant failure mechanism from carbide fracture to more ductile modes like matrix ploughing and carbide pull-out, enhancing energy absorption and dramatically improving impact properties.
#+END_SRC
# ahmedInfluenceReHIPingStructure2013
These findings demonstrate that re-HIPing is not merely a densification process but acts as an effective thermal treatment for tuning the alloy's microstructure. The observed solid solution strengthening of the cobalt matrix, coupled with the coarsening of the strengthening carbide phases, provides a clear microstructural basis for the enhanced tribomechanical performance.
# yuComparisonTriboMechanicalProperties2007
This result directly challenges the assumption that achieving maximum wear resistance in this class of alloy necessitates a trade-off with toughness. We reveal that the refined carbide morphology in the HIPed alloy fundamentally alters the dominant failure mechanism from brittle carbide fracture to matrix ploughing and carbide pull-out, which explains the dramatic improvement in impact properties.
# yuinfluencemanufacturingprocess2008
This finding reveals a complex and non-linear interdependency of tribological properties, challenging the common design principle that a substantial increase in toughness should directly translate to superior fatigue performance. In contrast to high-carbide alloys like Stellite 20, our results demonstrate that in medium-carbide systems, bulk hardness can be the limiting factor for contact fatigue, even in a microstructure optimized for impact resistance.
# yuTriboMechanicalEvaluationsCobaltBased2007
This outcome demonstrates a successful mitigation of the classic wear-resistance-versus-toughness trade-off. The fine, discrete carbides in the HIPed microstructure resist the catastrophic fracture that plagues the coarse carbide networks in the cast alloy, thereby providing a mechanism for enhanced energy absorption and fatigue life.
*** TODO One of more sentences to put the results into a more general context :ignore:ignore_heading:
These findings show that HIPing is a viable processing strategy for creating components that are simultaneously hard and tough, moving beyond the classic trade-off between wear resistance and toughness,
s a key design parameter for engineering superior materials. This approach allows for creating components that are simultaneously hard and tough, optimizing service life in applications requiring both wear and impact resistance.
# ahmedInfluenceReHIPingStructure2013
Our results establish re-HIPing as a viable and straightforward post-processing strategy to further optimize the service life and performance of cobalt-based components, offering a pathway to creating more durable materials for demanding engineering applications.
# yuComparisonTriboMechanicalProperties2007
These findings establish that the choice of processing route is a critical tool for engineering superior material properties, enabling the design of next-generation components that are simultaneously ultra-hard and exceptionally tough for high-stress applications.
# yuinfluencemanufacturingprocess2008
These results provide critical insight for tailoring material processing routes for specific engineering applications, highlighting that a holistic approach—considering the complex interplay between multiple mechanical properties—is necessary to design the next generation of high-performance materials.
# yuTriboMechanicalEvaluationsCobaltBased2007
Our results provide a clear processing strategy for engineering cobalt-based alloys with a more versatile combination of properties, enabling their use in higher-stress applications where resistance to both steady wear and mechanical shock is required.
* Introduction * Introduction
# - Background on Cobalt-Based Superalloys (2-3 paragraphs) # - Background on Cobalt-Based Superalloys (2-3 paragraphs)
@ -304,30 +330,88 @@ HAHAHAHAHHAHAHAHHAHAH
# 1 paragraph, followed by a bulleted list. # 1 paragraph, followed by a bulleted list.
# - Thesis outline (Optional) # - Thesis outline (Optional)
The microstrucuture of stellite alloys consists of a cobalt-chromium solid solution and mixed carbides composed of a metal radical and carbon as listed in \ref{tab:stellite_carbides}. # Cavitation erosion is an issue, aaa
# Stellites are great at combating this, in addition to other stuff.
\cite{nevilleAqueousCorrosionCobalt2010} # Provide historical context: development by Elwood Haynes and establishment of Stellite family.
\cite{nevilleAqueousCorrosionCobalt2010}
\begin{table} # Cavitation erosion
\protect\caption{Mixed carbides present in Stellite alloys\label{tab:stellite_carbides}} # Principal alloying philosophy
\begin{tabular}{|l|c|c|} # Type of carbides and how solid solution
\toprule Cavitation erosion, the mechanical degradation of surfaces due to collapse of bubbles and the resulting high-frequency high-pressure shock waves, is a common failure mechanism that limits the durability and service life of hydraulic components operating in aggressive service environment \cite{houCavitationErosionMechanisms2020, ashworthMicrostructurePropertyRelationships1999}.
Carbide & Comment & Citation \\
\midrule
${M}_{3}{C}_{2}$ & Chromium carbide which forms at low Cr/C ratio & \cite{nevilleAqueousCorrosionCobalt2010} \\
${M}_{7}{C}_{3}$ & Chromium content carbide which forms at a slightly higher Cr/C ratio & \cite{nevilleAqueousCorrosionCobalt2010} \\
${M}_{23}{C}_{6}$ & Chromium content carbide which forms at an higher Cr/C ratio & \cite{nevilleAqueousCorrosionCobalt2010} \\
\hline
${M}_6{C}$ & refractory metal carbide & \cite{nevilleAqueousCorrosionCobalt2010} \\
${M}{C}$ & refractory metal carbide & \cite{nevilleAqueousCorrosionCobalt2010} \\
\bottomrule
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
In cobalt-based and iron-based hardfacing alloys, mixed carbides present in the microstructure are composed of a metal radical and carbon for example M7C3, M23C6, M3C2 and MC In hardfacings with a fine microstructure the carbides may be too small to have their corrosion behaviour determined as they are formed in small quantities surrounded by the matrix phase. [27, 28]. The pure commercial versions of these carbides Cr3C2, Cr7C3, Cr23C6, Mo2C, NbC and TiC manufactured by sintering are too brittle to be used as hardfacings however, their large size will enable the corrosion behaviour to be evaluated. # \cite{ashworthMicrostructurePropertyRelationships1999}
# The incidence of erosino has increased in recent years due to higher operational pressures and speeds.
Stellites, a family of cobalt-based superallys, are widely used in industry to resist cavitation, in addition to their strength, wear resistance, and corrosion/oxidation resistance at high temperatures.
The main alloying elements of cobalt (Co), chromium (Cr, 25-33 wt.%), tungsten (W) or molybdenum (Mo) (up to 18 wt.%), and carbon (C, 0.1-3.3 wt.%) \cite{davisNickelCobaltTheir2000, ferozhkhanMetallurgicalStudyStellite2017}, form a composite-like microstrucuture consisting of a ductile cobalt-rich solid solution, which absorbs energy through a sluggish FCC to HCP phase transformation, with embedded hard carbide phases \cite{ahmedSlidingWearBlended2021a, crookCobaltbaseAlloysResist1994, nevilleAqueousCorrosionCobalt2010, zhangFrictionWearCharacterization2002}.
The proportion and type of carbides depend on carbon content and the relative amounts of chromium (of carbide type $\textrm{M}_{7}\textrm{C}_{3}$, $\textrm{M}_{23}\textrm{C}_{6}$) and tungsten and molybdenum (of carbide type $\textrm{M}_{6}\textrm{C}$, $\textrm{M}_{12}\textrm{C}$), with the solid solution strengthened by incorporating the elements not consumed in carbides.
The size and distribution of the carbides, and the resulting microstructure, is heavily dependent on its manufacturing process, especially the rate of solidification. For instance, the slow freezing rates inherent to traditional casting lead to a microstructure of large, dendritic carbides characterized by elemental segregation. Conversely, powder metallurgy creates a highly homogeneous microstructure with small, spherical carbides by largely retaining the properties of the initial powder \cite{yuInfluenceManufacturingProcess2008, wong-kianComparisonErosioncorrosionBehaviour}.
# Is great info, but maybe best suited for the WORK REPORT
# Perhaps this is there that Table will come in handy too.
# as seen in Table \ref{tab:stelliteComposition}
# \cite{ahmedMappingMechanicalProperties2023, alimardaniEffectLocalizedDynamic2010, ashworthMicrostructurePropertyRelationships1999, bunchCorrosionGallingResistant1989, davisNickelCobaltTheir2000, desaiEffectCarbideSize1984, ferozhkhanMetallurgicalStudyStellite2017, pacquentinTemperatureInfluenceRepair2025, ratiaComparisonSlidingWear2019, zhangFrictionWearCharacterization2002},
# High-carbon alloys (>1.2 wt%) have greater wear resistance, while low-carbon alloys (0.5 wt%) are used for enhanced corrosion resistance, with medium carbon alloys used in applications requiring a combination of wear and corrosion resistance \cite{davisNickelCobaltTheir2000}.
# Essentially, this is pretty close to being good
Wong-Kian et al \cite{wong-kianComparisonErosioncorrosionBehaviour} found that HIPed Stellite 1, 6, and 21 had superior erosion-corrosion characteristics to welded coatings when subjected to nitric acid in slurry pot, as well as found that increasing contents of chromium, carbonm and tungsten resulted in better performance.
Ashworth et al investigated the effect of
found that high carbon Stellite alloys benefitted from higher hipping temperatures (1200 C) while low carbon Stellite alloys reached optimum properties at a HIPing temperature of 1120 C \cite{ashworthMicrostructurePropertyRelationships1999}.
Yu et al \cite{yuInfluenceManufacturingProcess2008} found that HIPed stellite 6 had lower fatigue performance to HIPed stellite 20.
frenkMicrostructuralEffectsSliding1994 has good notes on effects of manufacturing
# Heathcock and Ball, 79 compared the cavitation erosion resistance of a number of Stellite alloys, (3, 4, 6, 8, 20, and 2006), cemented carbides and surface-treated alloy steels. They showed that among the Stellite alloys, Stellite 3 has the highest resistance to cavitation erosion. Stellite 4, 6, 8, and 20 have similar resistance and Stellite 2006 is a little less resistant than all the Stellite alloys. They considered this difference to be a consequence of the microstructure. \cite{heathcockCavitationErosionCobaltbased1981}
# corrosion resistance
As well as the corrosion behaviour being of interest, Malayoglu and Neville [16] conducted a comparative study on the erosion-corrosion performance of both HIPed and investment cast Stellite 6® in 3.5% NaCl solution as a function of temperature and the level of erosive particle loading. They found that in all cases, the HIPed Stellite 6® exhibited the higher erosioncorrosion resistance, which they attributed to the fact that the carbides are not interconnected in the HIPed material whereas eutectic and dendritic carbides in the cast structure form a network of interconnected material. Furthermore, the mean free path between carbides is much smaller in the HIPed material and as such the material responded homogenously to 4 erosion-corrosion. Another study comparing the erosion-corrosion behaviour of a range of HIPed and weld-deposited Stellite alloys in a nitric acid environment demonstrated that the HIPed alloys generally exhibited a lower mass loss which was again attributed to the finer microstructure [17].
A similar conclusion was also reached by Neville and Malayoglu [18] who attributed the superior corrosion resistance of HIPed Stellite 6 to its microstructure with equiaxed carbides and an absence of areas of chromium-depleted matrix material, due to reduced segregation.
krellComprehensiveInvestigationMicrostructureproperty2020
# Wong-Kian et al.16 showed that under erosioncorrosion conditions HIPed Stellite alloys 1, 6, and 21 had lower mass loss than the welded specimens of the same Stellites. They related their finding to the finer and homogeneous microstructure, which was obtained after HIPing. They also showed that wear resistance of the cobalt-based alloys is promoted by the harder complex carbides of chromium and tungsten, while corrosion resistance is enhanced by the presence of cobalt in the matrix. nevilleAqueousCorrosionCobalt2010
# Let's go to the actual topic
Although cobalt-based alloys are extensively studied <?>, a knowledge gap exists in understanding how different processing routes affect their cavitation erosion resistance. To address this, our work provides a direct comparison of the structure-property relationships in alloys produced by casting and powder-consolidated Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP). We characterized the alloys through microstructural analysis (SEM) and evaluated their relative tribo-mechanical performance based on hardness, impact toughness, resistance to abrasive and sliding wear, and contact fatigue.
# carbides provide higher strength and but may reduce corrosion resistance due to localized corrosion at carbide boundaries.
# In addition to the solid solution toughness and carbide hardness, the stress-induced FCC \textrightarrow{} HCP phase transformation of the Co-based solid solution further increases wear resistance through work hardening.
# Cr has a dominant role in the formation of carbide type $\textrm{M}_23\textrm{C}_6$
# The strength of most cobalt base superalloys is derived from the carbide phases present in the matrix and distributed around the grain boundaries. The carbides that form depend on the composition and thermal history of the material. The carbide former elements are from group IV (Ti, Zr, Hf), group V (Cb, Ta), and group VI (Cr, Mo, W). The types of carbides that are formed are as follows (M and C represents metal and carbon atoms respectively):
# Understanding the cobalt phase is crucial for studying structural changes in Co-based alloys widely used in industry. The fcc cobalt phase, especially its delayed transition to hcp at ambient and moderate temperatures \cite{DUBOS2020128812}, is of particular interest due to its impact on material properties in Co-based alloys \cite{Rajan19821161}. As the cobalt phase in stellite alloys is observed to consist of the fcc phase \cite{Rajan19821161}, the potential for strain-induced fcc to hcp transformation is of interest under the mechanical loading of cavitation erosion.
** COMMENT Draft ** COMMENT Draft
@ -473,7 +557,7 @@ Total & 6000 & 10 Figures and 3 Tables\tabularnewline
* Style guide * COMMENT Style guide
** Page and text formatting ** Page and text formatting
If you use the provided templates, the style requirements are already the default settings --- so don't tinker with them! This LaTeX template is based on the Elsevier class but using 11pt (instead of the standard 10pt). We use the single-column format for practical reasons. If you use the provided templates, the style requirements are already the default settings --- so don't tinker with them! This LaTeX template is based on the Elsevier class but using 11pt (instead of the standard 10pt). We use the single-column format for practical reasons.
@ -509,7 +593,7 @@ These must follow the style of the journal used in the `References' at the end o
You can create your own *.bib file using EndNote or Mendeley and then extract and format the cited references using BibTeX. You can create your own *.bib file using EndNote or Mendeley and then extract and format the cited references using BibTeX.
* Methodology and Apparatus * COMMENT Methodology and Apparatus
Clear description of how you approached the problem and what you did (NOT, what somebody else should do...). Clear description of how you approached the problem and what you did (NOT, what somebody else should do...).
@ -518,47 +602,63 @@ This might start with an introductory paragraph providing a high-level descripti
Especially in the description of your experiments or other activities, tables can be useful to summarise the key information, such as Table \ref{Tab:method}. Make sure it is complete but not too complex. Consider putting large tables in an appendix, but keep in mind the role of appendices mentioned in Section~\ref{S:Wordcount}. Especially in the description of your experiments or other activities, tables can be useful to summarise the key information, such as Table \ref{Tab:method}. Make sure it is complete but not too complex. Consider putting large tables in an appendix, but keep in mind the role of appendices mentioned in Section~\ref{S:Wordcount}.
* Results * COMMENT Results
Describe the results and the results of their analysis Describe the results and the results of their analysis
** Results and primary analysis ** Carbide volume analysis
# Stellite 1 is a CoCrW alloy with find Cr-rich and W-rich carbides
As-cast Stellite 1 shows a hyper-eutectic microstructure, with rod-like primary Cr-rich carbides (dark phase in BSE), lamellar W-rich carbides (light phase in BSE), and CoCrW matrix (gray region) as seen in Fig. <?>.
HIPed Stellite 1 shows a homogeneous microstructure in which fine carbides (Cr-rich and W-rich) are uniformly distributed in the matrix, as seen in Fig. <>.
Table 2 lists the image analysis results.
# yuComparisonTriboMechanicalProperties2007
** COMMENT Results and primary analysis
Present the primary results in sufficient detail that the reader can get a good insight into what you obtained from your experiments or field work (or whatever you did), but avoid showing many similar graphs. Only show key samples, for example a typical case and a few unusual cases. Here, you will need to make good use of figures, such as that in Fig.~\ref{exFigure} Present the primary results in sufficient detail that the reader can get a good insight into what you obtained from your experiments or field work (or whatever you did), but avoid showing many similar graphs. Only show key samples, for example a typical case and a few unusual cases. Here, you will need to make good use of figures, such as that in Fig.~\ref{exFigure}
\begin{figure} # \begin{figure}
\begin{centering} # \begin{centering}
\includegraphics[width=0.7\textwidth]{CP_vs_U_Turb_Farm} # \includegraphics[width=0.7\textwidth]{CP_vs_U_Turb_Farm}
\par\end{centering} # \par\end{centering}
\protect\caption{Range of observed power output from a single turbine (blue shaded and cross-hatched region) and from an entire wind farm at the same site (red shaded region) against wind speed. Both are normalised by the rated power and number of turbines contributing to the power output (Data source: Vattenfall).} # \protect\caption{Range of observed power output from a single turbine (blue shaded and cross-hatched region) and from an entire wind farm at the same site (red shaded region) against wind speed. Both are normalised by the rated power and number of turbines contributing to the power output (Data source: Vattenfall).}
\label{exFigure} # \label{exFigure}
\end{figure} # \end{figure}
** Secondary analysis ** COMMENT Secondary analysis
Try to build up your many results into a systematic analysis which distills the main results and presents them in a clear way in well-designed figures. Try to build up your many results into a systematic analysis which distills the main results and presents them in a clear way in well-designed figures.
** Uncertainty analysis
Remember: any result is only credible if the reader knows how accurate your results are likely to be. This needs an error analysis or uncertainty analysis of your results.
* Discussion * Discussion
Here you need to draw together your various results, discuss what they mean and how reliable they are, using your uncertainty analysis and any other aspects which might limit your results such as explicit or implicit assumptions in your methodology. Then discuss how your results contribute to addressing your aims and objectives, and what your contribution to the wider field is. # The microstructure of cobalt-based Stellite alloys has been the topic of research for almost a century and a number of investigations have discussed their microstructure on the basis of alloy composition and processing route 4,5,10–17 . However, comparative analysis of the microstructure of these alloys is scarce in the published literature. The aim of the discussion here is therefore to highlight the differences in the microstructure of the two alloys, with a view to underpin the understanding of structure–property and tribo-mechanical behavior.
There are three typical ways how the Discussion can be presented in a paper. The most extensive is to have the Discussion in its own section. From an intellectual point, this would be the recommended approach, at least to start with: it forces you to separate mentally your critical evaluation of your results from the evidence (your results) on which you base the discussion). The as-cast Stellite 1 alloy had a hypereutectic microstructure, with the Cr-rich (dark) carbides having a composition of $(Cr_{0.75}Co_{0.20}W_{0.05})_7C_3)} and identified as ${M}_{7}{C}_{3}$, and W-rich (dark) regions having a composition of $(Co_{0.6}W_{0.6})_{12}C$ and identified as ${M}_{12}C$. Cr-rich carbides
Another option is to merge the results and discussion into a single `Results and Discussion' section, but then you run the danger of mixing up evidence and interpretation and your lose strength in your argument. ** Carbide volume fraction
A third option is to merge the discussion with the conclusions. Here, you run the risk of your main conclusions becoming buried in the discussion, and the reader has to guess a bit as to what your main contribution was. As hard phases (carbides and intermetallics) contribute to hardness and wear resistance, it is beneficial to estimate the volume fraction of different phases, through thresholding BSE images
In the present work, BSE images were taken on the polished samples, and thresholded using histogram analysis, with ten readings taken and averages to calculate the volume fraction of hardness phases.
Stellite 1 includes two kinds of carbides, chromium rich carbides and tungsten-rich carbides.
ratiaComparisonSlidingWear2019
The total volume fraction of carbides
* Conclusions
* COMMENT Conclusions
A fairly concise section which summarises your main findings from your results and discussion sections, identifies your contribution to the field, and suggests some further work. A fairly concise section which summarises your main findings from your results and discussion sections, identifies your contribution to the field, and suggests some further work.
@ -577,3 +677,9 @@ Essential appendices; ie, detail without which the main paper is difficult to un
* List of further material in the Work Progress Report * List of further material in the Work Progress Report
All working material and non-essential appendices must be submitted separately as the `Work Progress Report'. There is no need to refer to that material. However, if you feel that certain sections or files in that report would be useful to the reader, you can list here that material and how to find it in the Work Progress Report submission. All working material and non-essential appendices must be submitted separately as the `Work Progress Report'. There is no need to refer to that material. However, if you feel that certain sections or files in that report would be useful to the reader, you can list here that material and how to find it in the Work Progress Report submission.
* Local Variables :ignore_heading:
# Local Variables:
# after-save-hook: (lambda nil (org-export-to-file 'latex (format "src/%s.tex" (file-name-nondirectory (file-name-sans-extension (buffer-file-name))))))
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\title{Influence of manufacturing process on Cavitation Erosion in CoCrWMoCFeNiSiMn (Stellite 1) alloys}
\begin{document}
\lhead{Vishakh Pradeep Kumar}
\rhead{\thepage}
\lfoot{MSc Adv. Mechanical Engineering}
\journal{MSc Advanced Mechanical Engineering}
\begin{frontmatter}
\title{Dissertation title}
\author{Vishakh Pradeep Kumar\fnref{label2}}
\ead{vp2039@hw.ac.uk}
\fntext[label2]{Student ID : H00428384 }
\author{\\ Supervisor: Dr Rehan Ahmed}
\address{Heriot-Watt University, School of Engineering and Physical Sciences, Mechanical Engineering, Dubai}
\begin{abstract}
The lifespan and reliability of components subjected to severe cavitation and corrosion erosion depend critically on material properties and failure mechanisms. The microstructure, and hence performance, of wear-resistant alloys used in such aggressive conditions is not dictated by chemical composition alone but is critically shaped by manufacturing process.
Cobalt-based Stellite alloys are a primary choice for these applications, deriving their exceptional wear resistance from hard carbide phases embedded within a tough cobalt-alloy matrix. Traditionally, these alloys are produced by casting, which often produces a coarse and brittle carbide network. In contrast, powder metallurgy routes, such as Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP), yield a significantly more refined and homogeneous microstructure, offering a pathway to superior durability.
However it remains a critical question whether the microstructural refinement achieved through HIPing enhances toughness and fatigue resistance in high carbon alloys like Stellite 1, particularly in the context of cavitation erosion.
Here we show, by directly comparing a cast and a HIPed cobalt alloy (Co-30Cr-12W-2.5C by wt\%), that the HIPing route produces a material with superior cavitation erosion and order of magnitude greater corrosion resistance to its cast counterpart.
\end{abstract}
\begin{keyword}
3 to 5 keywords here, in the form: keyword \sep keyword
\end{keyword}
\end{frontmatter}
\section{Introduction}
\label{sec:org5da326e}
Cavitation erosion, the mechanical degradation of surfaces due to collapse of bubbles and the resulting high-frequency high-pressure shock waves, is a common failure mechanism that limits the durability and service life of hydraulic components operating in aggressive service environment \cite{houCavitationErosionMechanisms2020, ashworthMicrostructurePropertyRelationships1999}.
Stellites, a family of cobalt-based superallys, are widely used in industry to resist cavitation, in addition to their strength, wear resistance, and corrosion/oxidation resistance at high temperatures.
The main alloying elements of cobalt (Co), chromium (Cr, 25-33 wt.\%), tungsten (W) or molybdenum (Mo) (up to 18 wt.\%), and carbon (C, 0.1-3.3 wt.\%) \cite{davisNickelCobaltTheir2000, ferozhkhanMetallurgicalStudyStellite2017}, form a composite-like microstrucuture consisting of a ductile cobalt-rich solid solution, which absorbs energy through a sluggish FCC to HCP phase transformation, with embedded hard carbide phases \cite{ahmedSlidingWearBlended2021a, crookCobaltbaseAlloysResist1994, nevilleAqueousCorrosionCobalt2010, zhangFrictionWearCharacterization2002}.
The proportion and type of carbides depend on carbon content and the relative amounts of chromium (of carbide type \(\textrm{M}_{7}\textrm{C}_{3}\), \(\textrm{M}_{23}\textrm{C}_{6}\)) and tungsten and molybdenum (of carbide type \(\textrm{M}_{6}\textrm{C}\), \(\textrm{M}_{12}\textrm{C}\)), with the solid solution strengthened by incorporating the elements not consumed in carbides.
The size and distribution of the carbides, and the resulting microstructure, is heavily dependent on its manufacturing process, especially the rate of solidification. For instance, the slow freezing rates inherent to traditional casting lead to a microstructure of large, dendritic carbides characterized by elemental segregation. Conversely, powder metallurgy creates a highly homogeneous microstructure with small, spherical carbides by largely retaining the properties of the initial powder \cite{yuInfluenceManufacturingProcess2008, wong-kianComparisonErosioncorrosionBehaviour}.
Wong-Kian et al \cite{wong-kianComparisonErosioncorrosionBehaviour} found that HIPed Stellite 1, 6, and 21 had superior erosion-corrosion characteristics to welded coatings when subjected to nitric acid in slurry pot, as well as found that increasing contents of chromium, carbonm and tungsten resulted in better performance.
Ashworth et al investigated the effect of
found that high carbon Stellite alloys benefitted from higher hipping temperatures (1200 C) while low carbon Stellite alloys reached optimum properties at a HIPing temperature of 1120 C \cite{ashworthMicrostructurePropertyRelationships1999}.
Yu et al \cite{yuInfluenceManufacturingProcess2008} found that HIPed stellite 6 had lower fatigue performance to HIPed stellite 20.
frenkMicrostructuralEffectsSliding1994 has good notes on effects of manufacturing
As well as the corrosion behaviour being of interest, Malayoglu and Neville [16] conducted a comparative study on the erosion-corrosion performance of both HIPed and investment cast Stellite 6® in 3.5\% NaCl solution as a function of temperature and the level of erosive particle loading. They found that in all cases, the HIPed Stellite 6® exhibited the higher erosioncorrosion resistance, which they attributed to the fact that the carbides are not interconnected in the HIPed material whereas eutectic and dendritic carbides in the cast structure form a network of interconnected material. Furthermore, the mean free path between carbides is much smaller in the HIPed material and as such the material responded homogenously to 4 erosion-corrosion. Another study comparing the erosion-corrosion behaviour of a range of HIPed and weld-deposited Stellite alloys in a nitric acid environment demonstrated that the HIPed alloys generally exhibited a lower mass loss which was again attributed to the finer microstructure [17].
A similar conclusion was also reached by Neville and Malayoglu [18] who attributed the superior corrosion resistance of HIPed Stellite 6 to its microstructure with equiaxed carbides and an absence of areas of chromium-depleted matrix material, due to reduced segregation.
krellComprehensiveInvestigationMicrostructureproperty2020
Although cobalt-based alloys are extensively studied <?>, a knowledge gap exists in understanding how different processing routes affect their cavitation erosion resistance. To address this, our work provides a direct comparison of the structure-property relationships in alloys produced by casting and powder-consolidated Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP). We characterized the alloys through microstructural analysis (SEM) and evaluated their relative tribo-mechanical performance based on hardness, impact toughness, resistance to abrasive and sliding wear, and contact fatigue.
\section{Discussion}
\label{sec:org0ba97dc}
The as-cast Stellite 1 alloy had a hypereutectic microstructure, with the Cr-rich (dark) carbides having a composition of \$(Cr\textsubscript{0.75}Co\textsubscript{0.20}W\textsubscript{0.05})\textsubscript{7C}\textsubscript{3})\} and identified as \({M}_{7}{C}_{3}\), and W-rich (dark) regions having a composition of \((Co_{0.6}W_{0.6})_{12}C\) and identified as \({M}_{12}C\). Cr-rich carbides
\subsection{Carbide volume fraction}
\label{sec:org1499243}
As hard phases (carbides and intermetallics) contribute to hardness and wear resistance, it is beneficial to estimate the volume fraction of different phases, through thresholding BSE images
In the present work, BSE images were taken on the polished samples, and thresholded using histogram analysis, with ten readings taken and averages to calculate the volume fraction of hardness phases.
Stellite 1 includes two kinds of carbides, chromium rich carbides and tungsten-rich carbides.
ratiaComparisonSlidingWear2019
The total volume fraction of carbides
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\appendix
\section{Essential appendices}
\label{sec:org4552bda}
Essential appendices; ie, detail without which the main paper is difficult to understand should be included here.
\section{List of further material in the Work Progress Report}
\label{sec:org5242f6e}
All working material and non-essential appendices must be submitted separately as the `Work Progress Report'. There is no need to refer to that material. However, if you feel that certain sections or files in that report would be useful to the reader, you can list here that material and how to find it in the Work Progress Report submission.
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