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Thesis.org
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Thesis.org
@ -1692,118 +1692,6 @@ Besides, we used the Thermo-Calc software [26] and TCHEA5 thermodynamic database
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* Data Tables
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* Data Tables
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** phase_volume_fraction
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#+NAME: phase_volume_fraction
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| Manufacture | Stellite | Co-rich matrix | Cr-rich carbide | W/Mo-rich carbide | Citations |
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|-------------+--------------+----------------+-----------------+-------------------+---------------------------------------------|
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| HIPed | 1 | 59.2 | 27.5 | 13.3 | ahmedInfluenceAlloyComposition2025 |
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| PTA | 12 | 58.8 | 35.6 | 5.6 | motallebzadehSlidingWearCharacteristics2015 |
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| HIPed | 19 | 62.6 | 37.4 | 0 | fioreMicrostructuralEffectsAbrasive1978 |
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| HIPed | 20 | 51.1 | 24.2 | 24.7 | ahmedSlidingWearBlended2021a |
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| Cast | 20 | 57.4 | 24.5 | 18.1 | yuInfluenceManufacturingProcess2008 |
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| HIPed | 20 | 51.1 | 24.2 | 24.7 | yuInfluenceManufacturingProcess2008 |
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| HIPed | 21 | 93.3 | 5.1 | 1.7 | ahmedInfluenceAlloyComposition2025 |
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| cast | 21 | 95 | 0 | 5 | ahmedStructurePropertyRelationships2014 |
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| HIPed | 21 | 93.3 | 5.1 | 1.7 | ahmedStructurePropertyRelationships2014 |
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| Cast | 3 | 66.52 | 27.83 | 5.65 | liuMicrostructuresHardnessWear2015 |
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| Cast | 3 | 61.69 | 27.22 | 11.09 | liuSlidingWearSolidparticle2015 |
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| HIPed | 3 | 44.8 | 46.3 | 8.9 | fioreMicrostructuralEffectsAbrasive1978 |
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| Cast | 300 | 49.54 | 9.98 | 40.48 | liuSlidingWearSolidparticle2015 |
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| HIPed | 50% 1 50% 21 | 82.2 | 9.0 | 8.9 | ahmedInfluenceAlloyComposition2025 |
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| HIPed | 50% 6 50% 20 | 66.1 | 22.1 | 11.2 | ahmedSlidingWearBlended2021a |
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| Cast | 6 | 83.11 | 15.57 | 1.32 | liuMicrostructuresHardnessWear2015 |
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| Cast | 6 | 79.03 | 15.62 | 5.35 | liuSlidingWearSolidparticle2015 |
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| HIPed | 6 | 66.2 | 33.8 | 0 | fioreMicrostructuralEffectsAbrasive1978 |
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| HIPed | 6 | 82.1 | 17.9 | 0 | ahmedSlidingWearBlended2021a |
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| Cast | 6 | 84.5 | 14.5 | 1 | yuInfluenceManufacturingProcess2008 |
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| HIPed | 6 | 82.1 | 17.9 | 0 | yuInfluenceManufacturingProcess2008 |
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| Cast | 6 | 84.5 | 14.5 | 1 | ahmedSingleAsperityNanoscratch2014 |
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| re-HIPed | 6 | 85 | 15 | 0 | ahmedSingleAsperityNanoscratch2014 |
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| HIPed | 6HC | 60.5 | 39.5 | 0 | fioreMicrostructuralEffectsAbrasive1978 |
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| Cast | 706 | 83.45 | 13.91 | 2.64 | liuMicrostructuresHardnessWear2015 |
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| Cast | 712 | 70.36 | 24.26 | 5.38 | liuMicrostructuresHardnessWear2015 |
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| Cast | 720 | 55.31 | 25.09 | 19.6 | liuMicrostructuresHardnessWear2015 |
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| HIPed | 98M2 | 43.4 | 43.6 | 13 | fioreMicrostructuralEffectsAbrasive1978 |
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| HIPed | J-Metal | 50.1 | 41.0 | 8.9 | fioreMicrostructuralEffectsAbrasive1978 |
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#+begin_src jupyter-python :session py :kernel python3 :var phase_volume_fraction=phase_volume_fraction :colnames no
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import pandas as pd
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df = pd.DataFrame(
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phase_volume_fraction[1:],
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columns=phase_volume_fraction[0]
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)
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#df.sort_values(by=["Stellite"])
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print(df)
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#+end_src
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#+RESULTS:
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#+begin_example
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Manufacture Stellite Co-rich matrix Cr-rich carbide \
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0 HIPed 1 59.20 27.50
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1 PTA 12 58.80 35.60
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2 HIPed 19 62.60 37.40
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3 HIPed 20 51.10 24.20
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4 Cast 20 57.40 24.50
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5 HIPed 20 51.10 24.20
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6 HIPed 21 93.30 5.10
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7 cast 21 95.00 0.00
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8 HIPed 21 93.30 5.10
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9 Cast 3 66.52 27.83
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10 Cast 3 61.69 27.22
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11 HIPed 3 44.80 46.30
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12 Cast 300 49.54 9.98
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13 HIPed 50% 1 50% 21 82.20 9.00
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14 HIPed 50% 6 50% 20 66.10 22.10
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15 Cast 6 83.11 15.57
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16 Cast 6 79.03 15.62
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17 HIPed 6 66.20 33.80
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18 HIPed 6 82.10 17.90
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19 Cast 6 84.50 14.50
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20 HIPed 6 82.10 17.90
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21 Cast 6 84.50 14.50
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22 re-HIPed 6 85.00 15.00
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23 HIPed 6HC 60.50 39.50
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24 Cast 706 83.45 13.91
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25 Cast 712 70.36 24.26
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26 Cast 720 55.31 25.09
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27 HIPed 98M2 43.40 43.60
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28 HIPed J-Metal 50.10 41.00
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W/Mo-rich carbide Citations
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0 13.30 ahmedInfluenceAlloyComposition2025
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1 5.60 motallebzadehSlidingWearCharacteristics2015
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2 0.00 fioreMicrostructuralEffectsAbrasive1978
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3 24.70 ahmedSlidingWearBlended2021a
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4 18.10 yuInfluenceManufacturingProcess2008
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5 24.70 yuInfluenceManufacturingProcess2008
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6 1.70 ahmedInfluenceAlloyComposition2025
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7 5.00 ahmedStructurePropertyRelationships2014
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8 1.70 ahmedStructurePropertyRelationships2014
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9 5.65 liuMicrostructuresHardnessWear2015
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10 11.09 liuSlidingWearSolidparticle2015
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11 8.90 fioreMicrostructuralEffectsAbrasive1978
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12 40.48 liuSlidingWearSolidparticle2015
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13 8.90 ahmedInfluenceAlloyComposition2025
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14 11.20 ahmedSlidingWearBlended2021a
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15 1.32 liuMicrostructuresHardnessWear2015
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16 5.35 liuSlidingWearSolidparticle2015
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17 0.00 fioreMicrostructuralEffectsAbrasive1978
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18 0.00 ahmedSlidingWearBlended2021a
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19 1.00 yuInfluenceManufacturingProcess2008
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20 0.00 yuInfluenceManufacturingProcess2008
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21 1.00 ahmedSingleAsperityNanoscratch2014
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22 0.00 ahmedSingleAsperityNanoscratch2014
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23 0.00 fioreMicrostructuralEffectsAbrasive1978
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24 2.64 liuMicrostructuresHardnessWear2015
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25 5.38 liuMicrostructuresHardnessWear2015
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26 19.60 liuMicrostructuresHardnessWear2015
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27 13.00 fioreMicrostructuralEffectsAbrasive1978
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28 8.90 fioreMicrostructuralEffectsAbrasive1978
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#+end_example
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* COMMENT Appendix :ignore_heading:
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* COMMENT Appendix :ignore_heading:
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103
references.bib
103
references.bib
@ -3816,6 +3816,40 @@
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file = {/home/grokkingstuff/Sync/Zotero/Zotero/storage/IGTGYGKV/Chen and Mongis - 2005 - Cavitation wear in plain bearing Case study.pdf}
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file = {/home/grokkingstuff/Sync/Zotero/Zotero/storage/IGTGYGKV/Chen and Mongis - 2005 - Cavitation wear in plain bearing Case study.pdf}
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}
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}
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@article{chenCharacterisationsElectrosparkDeposition2010,
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title = {Characterisations of Electrospark Deposition {{Stellite}} 6 Alloy Coating on {{316L}} Sealed Valve Used in Nuclear Power Plant},
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author = {Chen, C. J. and Wang, M. C. and Wang, D. S. and Liang, H. S. and Feng, P.},
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year = {2010},
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month = mar,
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journal = {Materials Science and Technology},
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volume = {26},
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number = {3},
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pages = {276--280},
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issn = {0267-0836, 1743-2847},
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doi = {10.1179/174328409X430447},
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urldate = {2025-08-04},
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abstract = {In nuclear plant the protection of the H 2 BO 4 solution seal areas of AISI 316L austenitic steel is accomplished by Stellite 6 plasma cladding layer. Wear defects created in service required the part to be replaced or repaired. No existing repair technologies were practical. Electrospark deposition (ESD) was to repair defects, enabling the parts to be placed back in service. In this paper the authors report the results obtained depositing directly a layer of Stellite 6 alloy onto a 316L austenitic stainless and Stellite 6 plasma cladding layer by using ESD technique. Electrospark deposition can apply metallurgical bonded coatings without the need of post-heat treatment. Structure, hardness, chemical composition and morphology of the ESD coating have been analysed. By electrochemical measurements it is inferred that the corrosion resistance of the ESD coating is comparable to that of the 316L and Stellite 6 plasma cladding layer. The hardness improvement was ascribed to the refine microstructure and the rapid solidification.},
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copyright = {https://journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license},
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langid = {english}
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}
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@article{chenCharacterisationsElectrosparkDeposition2010a,
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title = {Characterisations of Electrospark Deposition {{Stellite}} 6 Alloy Coating on {{316L}} Sealed Valve Used in Nuclear Power Plant},
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author = {Chen, C. J. and Wang, M. C. and Wang, D. S. and Liang, H. S. and Feng, P.},
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year = {2010},
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month = mar,
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journal = {Materials Science and Technology},
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volume = {26},
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number = {3},
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pages = {276--280},
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issn = {0267-0836, 1743-2847},
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doi = {10.1179/174328409X430447},
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urldate = {2025-08-04},
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abstract = {In nuclear plant the protection of the H 2 BO 4 solution seal areas of AISI 316L austenitic steel is accomplished by Stellite 6 plasma cladding layer. Wear defects created in service required the part to be replaced or repaired. No existing repair technologies were practical. Electrospark deposition (ESD) was to repair defects, enabling the parts to be placed back in service. In this paper the authors report the results obtained depositing directly a layer of Stellite 6 alloy onto a 316L austenitic stainless and Stellite 6 plasma cladding layer by using ESD technique. Electrospark deposition can apply metallurgical bonded coatings without the need of post-heat treatment. Structure, hardness, chemical composition and morphology of the ESD coating have been analysed. By electrochemical measurements it is inferred that the corrosion resistance of the ESD coating is comparable to that of the 316L and Stellite 6 plasma cladding layer. The hardness improvement was ascribed to the refine microstructure and the rapid solidification.},
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copyright = {https://journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license},
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langid = {english}
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}
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@article{chenCharacteristicsNanoParticles2009,
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@article{chenCharacteristicsNanoParticles2009,
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title = {Characteristics of Nano Particles and Their Effect on the Formation of Nanostructures in Air Plasma Spraying {{WC}}--{{17Co}} Coating},
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title = {Characteristics of Nano Particles and Their Effect on the Formation of Nanostructures in Air Plasma Spraying {{WC}}--{{17Co}} Coating},
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author = {Chen, Hui and Gou, Guoqing and Tu, Mingjing and Liu, Yan},
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author = {Chen, Hui and Gou, Guoqing and Tu, Mingjing and Liu, Yan},
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@ -5203,9 +5237,13 @@
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file = {/home/grokkingstuff/Sync/Zotero/Zotero/storage/79W4TLTA/lovelock1998.pdf.pdf}
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file = {/home/grokkingstuff/Sync/Zotero/Zotero/storage/79W4TLTA/lovelock1998.pdf.pdf}
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}
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}
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@article{dillichEffectsIonImplantation,
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@techreport{dillichEffectsIonImplantation,
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title = {Effects of {{Ion Implantation}} on {{Cavitation Erosion}} of a {{Cobalt Based Metal}}/{{Carbide Alloy}}.},
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title = {Effects of {{Ion Implantation}} on {{Cavitation Erosion}} of a {{Cobalt Based Metal}}/{{Carbide Alloy}}.},
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author = {Dillich, Sara A},
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author = {Dillich, Sara A},
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year = {1997},
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month = aug,
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pages = {64},
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institution = {Worchester Polytechnic Institute},
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langid = {english},
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langid = {english},
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keywords = {No DOI found},
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keywords = {No DOI found},
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file = {/home/grokkingstuff/Sync/Zotero/Zotero/storage/N9NDA3LX/Dillich - Effects of Ion Implantation on Cavitation Erosion of a Cobalt Based MetalCarbide Alloy..pdf}
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file = {/home/grokkingstuff/Sync/Zotero/Zotero/storage/N9NDA3LX/Dillich - Effects of Ion Implantation on Cavitation Erosion of a Cobalt Based MetalCarbide Alloy..pdf}
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@ -8720,6 +8758,14 @@
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keywords = {Atomic force microscopy,Cermets,Corrosion resistance,Degradation,Durability,Electrochemical monitoring,Electrochemistry,Optical microscopy,Protective coatings,Saline water,Scanning electron microscopy,Sprayed coatings,Thermal effects,Thermal spray cermet coatings}
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keywords = {Atomic force microscopy,Cermets,Corrosion resistance,Degradation,Durability,Electrochemical monitoring,Electrochemistry,Optical microscopy,Protective coatings,Saline water,Scanning electron microscopy,Sprayed coatings,Thermal effects,Thermal spray cermet coatings}
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}
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}
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@article{hoffardCavitationErosionElectro,
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title = {Cavitation {{Erosion}} of {{Electro Spark Deposited Nitinol}} vs. {{Stellite Alloy}} on {{Stainless Steel Substrate}}},
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author = {Hoffard, Theresa A and Pedro, Lean-Miguel San and Arushanov, Mikhail and Polly, Daniel R},
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langid = {english},
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keywords = {No DOI found},
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file = {/home/grokkingstuff/Sync/Zotero/Zotero/storage/YCZW546D/Hoffard et al. - Cavitation Erosion of Electro Spark Deposited Nitinol vs. Stellite Alloy on Stainless Steel Substrat.pdf}
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}
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@article{hofmannComparisonAcousticHydrodynamic2023,
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@article{hofmannComparisonAcousticHydrodynamic2023,
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title = {Comparison of Acoustic and Hydrodynamic Cavitation: {{Material}} Point of View},
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title = {Comparison of Acoustic and Hydrodynamic Cavitation: {{Material}} Point of View},
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author = {Hofmann, J. and Thi{\'e}baut, C. and Riondet, M. and Lhuissier, P. and Gaudion, S. and Fivel, M.},
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author = {Hofmann, J. and Thi{\'e}baut, C. and Riondet, M. and Lhuissier, P. and Gaudion, S. and Fivel, M.},
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@ -12150,25 +12196,6 @@
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file = {/home/grokkingstuff/Sync/Zotero/Zotero/storage/K448WXZA/Lim and Mansor - 2017 - Aerodynamic Analysis of F1 IN SCHOOLS™ Car.pdf}
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file = {/home/grokkingstuff/Sync/Zotero/Zotero/storage/K448WXZA/Lim and Mansor - 2017 - Aerodynamic Analysis of F1 IN SCHOOLS™ Car.pdf}
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}
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}
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@article{limAerodynamicAnalysisF12017a,
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title = {Aerodynamic {{Analysis}} of {{F1 IN SCHOOLS}}™ {{Car}}},
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author = {Lim, S. J. and Mansor, M. R. A.},
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year = {2017},
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month = jan,
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journal = {Journal of the Society of Automotive Engineers Malaysia},
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volume = {1},
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number = {1},
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pages = {41--54},
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issn = {2550-2239},
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doi = {10.56381/jsaem.v1i1.7},
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urldate = {2025-06-25},
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abstract = {F1 IN SCHOOLS™ is a worldwide competition that is part of the efforts undertaken by the STEM educational model. In order to increase the performance of the F1 IN SCHOOLS™ car in terms of speed, two important parameters related to aerodynamic analysis are considered - drag coefficient and downforce coefficient. Drag force is a force that acts in the direction that is opposite of the car's motion, thus reducing the car's maximum speed. Meanwhile, sufficient downforce is beneficial to the car model because it allows the car's wheels to remain in contact with the track surface without going off-track. The most important component of a F1 IN SCHOOLS™ car is its front wing since its design has a significant effect on the drag coefficient and downforce coefficient induced by the air flow. Therefore, the objective of this study is to design a front wing that is capable of producing low drag coefficient while maintaining sufficient downforce coefficient. Moreover, this study also aims to examine the method of preventing flow separation at the rear part of the car model. This study will use Autodesk Inventor Professional to create the car mode. The simulation will be run using the STAR CCM+ software. The simulation will also be used to obtain the drag coefficient and downforce coefficient of the car.},
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copyright = {Copyright (c) 2021},
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langid = {english},
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keywords = {aerodynamics,CFD,drag force,F1 IN SCHOOLS,STEM},
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file = {/home/grokkingstuff/Sync/Zotero/Zotero/storage/FNV9K3BS/Lim and Mansor - 2017 - Aerodynamic Analysis of F1 IN SCHOOLS™ Car.pdf}
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}
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@article{limaNearisotropicAirPlasma2004,
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@article{limaNearisotropicAirPlasma2004,
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title = {Near-Isotropic Air Plasma Sprayed Titania},
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title = {Near-Isotropic Air Plasma Sprayed Titania},
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author = {Lima, R.S. and Marple, B.R.},
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author = {Lima, R.S. and Marple, B.R.},
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@ -20459,6 +20486,42 @@
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file = {/home/grokkingstuff/Sync/Zotero/Zotero/storage/UPY943XR/Szala et al. - 2020 - Neural modelling of aps thermal spray process parameters for optimizing the hardness, porosity and c.pdf}
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file = {/home/grokkingstuff/Sync/Zotero/Zotero/storage/UPY943XR/Szala et al. - 2020 - Neural modelling of aps thermal spray process parameters for optimizing the hardness, porosity and c.pdf}
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}
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}
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@article{szalaPhenomenologicalModelCavitation2023,
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title = {Phenomenological {{Model}} of {{Cavitation Erosion}} of {{Nitrogen ION Implanted Hiped Stellite}} 6},
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author = {Szala, Miros{\l}aw},
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year = {2023},
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month = mar,
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journal = {Advances in Materials Science},
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volume = {23},
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number = {1},
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pages = {98--109},
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issn = {2083-4799},
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doi = {10.2478/adms-2023-0007},
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urldate = {2025-08-06},
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abstract = {Stellites are a group of Co-Cr-C-W/Mo-containing alloys showing outstanding behavior under cavitation erosion (CE) operational conditions. The process of ion implantation can improve the CE resistance of metal alloys. This work presents the elaborated original phenomenological model of CE of nitrogen ion implanted HIP-consolidated (Hot Isostatically Pressed) cobalt alloy grade Stellite 6. The ultrasonic vibratory test rig was used for CE testing. The nitrogen ion implantation with 120 keV and fluence of 5 {\texttimes} 1016 N+/cm-2 improves HIPed Stellite 6 cavitation erosion resistance two times. Ion-implanted HIPed Stellite 6 has more than ten times higher CE resistance than the reference AISI 304 stainless steel sample. Comparative analysis of AFM, SEM and XRD results done at different test intervals reveals the kinetic of CE process. The model includes the surface roughness development and clarifies the meaning of cobalt-based matrix phase transformations under the nitrogen ion implantation and cavitation loads. Ion implantation modifies the cavitation erosion mechanisms of HIPed Stellite 6. The CE of unimplanted alloy starts on material loss initiated at the carbides/matrix interfaces. Deterioration starts with cobalt matrix plastic deformation, weakening the carbides restraint in the metallic matrix. Then, the cobalt-based matrix and further hard carbides are removed. Finally, a deformed cobalt matrix undergoes cracking, accelerating material removal and formation of pits and craters' growth. The nitrogen ion implantation facilitates {$\varepsilon$} (hcp---hexagonal close-packed)) {$\rightarrow$} {$\gamma$} (fcc---face-centered cubic) phase transformation, which further is reversed due to cavitation loads, i.e., CE induces the {$\gamma$} {$\rightarrow$} {$\varepsilon$} martensitic phase transformation of the cobalt-based matrix. This phenomenon successfully limits carbide removal by consuming the cavitation loads for martensitic transformation at the initial stages of erosion. The CE incubation stage for ion implanted HIPed Stellite 6 lasts longer than for unimplanted due to the higher initial content of {$\gamma$} phase. Moreover, this phase slows the erosion rate by restraining carbides in cobalt-based matrix, facilitating strain-induced martensitic transformation and preventing the surface from severe material loss.},
|
||||||
|
copyright = {http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0},
|
||||||
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langid = {english},
|
||||||
|
file = {/home/grokkingstuff/Sync/Zotero/Zotero/storage/EH2CGMHM/Szala - 2023 - Phenomenological Model of Cavitation Erosion of Nitrogen ION Implanted Hiped Stellite 6.pdf}
|
||||||
|
}
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
@article{szalaPhenomenologicalModelCavitation2023a,
|
||||||
|
title = {Phenomenological {{Model}} of {{Cavitation Erosion}} of {{Nitrogen ION Implanted Hiped Stellite}} 6},
|
||||||
|
author = {Szala, Miros{\l}aw},
|
||||||
|
year = {2023},
|
||||||
|
month = mar,
|
||||||
|
journal = {Advances in Materials Science},
|
||||||
|
volume = {23},
|
||||||
|
number = {1},
|
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|
pages = {98--109},
|
||||||
|
issn = {2083-4799},
|
||||||
|
doi = {10.2478/adms-2023-0007},
|
||||||
|
urldate = {2025-08-06},
|
||||||
|
abstract = {Stellites are a group of Co-Cr-C-W/Mo-containing alloys showing outstanding behavior under cavitation erosion (CE) operational conditions. The process of ion implantation can improve the CE resistance of metal alloys. This work presents the elaborated original phenomenological model of CE of nitrogen ion implanted HIP-consolidated (Hot Isostatically Pressed) cobalt alloy grade Stellite 6. The ultrasonic vibratory test rig was used for CE testing. The nitrogen ion implantation with 120 keV and fluence of 5 {\texttimes} 1016 N+/cm-2 improves HIPed Stellite 6 cavitation erosion resistance two times. Ion-implanted HIPed Stellite 6 has more than ten times higher CE resistance than the reference AISI 304 stainless steel sample. Comparative analysis of AFM, SEM and XRD results done at different test intervals reveals the kinetic of CE process. The model includes the surface roughness development and clarifies the meaning of cobalt-based matrix phase transformations under the nitrogen ion implantation and cavitation loads. Ion implantation modifies the cavitation erosion mechanisms of HIPed Stellite 6. The CE of unimplanted alloy starts on material loss initiated at the carbides/matrix interfaces. Deterioration starts with cobalt matrix plastic deformation, weakening the carbides restraint in the metallic matrix. Then, the cobalt-based matrix and further hard carbides are removed. Finally, a deformed cobalt matrix undergoes cracking, accelerating material removal and formation of pits and craters' growth. The nitrogen ion implantation facilitates {$\varepsilon$} (hcp---hexagonal close-packed)) {$\rightarrow$} {$\gamma$} (fcc---face-centered cubic) phase transformation, which further is reversed due to cavitation loads, i.e., CE induces the {$\gamma$} {$\rightarrow$} {$\varepsilon$} martensitic phase transformation of the cobalt-based matrix. This phenomenon successfully limits carbide removal by consuming the cavitation loads for martensitic transformation at the initial stages of erosion. The CE incubation stage for ion implanted HIPed Stellite 6 lasts longer than for unimplanted due to the higher initial content of {$\gamma$} phase. Moreover, this phase slows the erosion rate by restraining carbides in cobalt-based matrix, facilitating strain-induced martensitic transformation and preventing the surface from severe material loss.},
|
||||||
|
copyright = {http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0},
|
||||||
|
langid = {english},
|
||||||
|
file = {/home/grokkingstuff/Sync/Zotero/Zotero/storage/G64CRYUD/Szala - 2023 - Phenomenological Model of Cavitation Erosion of Nitrogen ION Implanted Hiped Stellite 6.pdf}
|
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|
}
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|
||||||
@article{szkodoMathematicalDescriptionEvaluation2005,
|
@article{szkodoMathematicalDescriptionEvaluation2005,
|
||||||
title = {Mathematical Description and Evaluation of Cavitation Erosion Resistance of Materials},
|
title = {Mathematical Description and Evaluation of Cavitation Erosion Resistance of Materials},
|
||||||
author = {Szkodo, M.},
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author = {Szkodo, M.},
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168
report.org
168
report.org
@ -317,6 +317,42 @@ These results provide critical insight for tailoring material processing routes
|
|||||||
Our results provide a clear processing strategy for engineering cobalt-based alloys with a more versatile combination of properties, enabling their use in higher-stress applications where resistance to both steady wear and mechanical shock is required.
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Our results provide a clear processing strategy for engineering cobalt-based alloys with a more versatile combination of properties, enabling their use in higher-stress applications where resistance to both steady wear and mechanical shock is required.
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** COMMENT Style guide
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*** Page and text formatting
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If you use the provided templates, the style requirements are already the default settings --- so don't tinker with them! This LaTeX template is based on the Elsevier class but using 11pt (instead of the standard 10pt). We use the single-column format for practical reasons.
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||||||
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The document has to be prepared for the UK standard paper of A4 size with a text area of 16.45~cm by 21.9~cm using single columns at a `normal' serif font (e.g., Times New Roman or Cambria) with font size 11pt.
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*** Word count
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#+LaTeX: \label{S:Wordcount}
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The expected word count is between 5000 and 7000 words. The word count includes everything from the start of the Introduction to the end of the Conclusions, including text in figure captions and tables. Excluded from the word count is the front matter (from the title to the end of the abstracts and key words) and the end matter (acknowledgements, references, appendices).
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||||||
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If you try to cheat the word count by having a lot of important information in appendices: remember that appendices only provide supplementary material, not essential material for the assessment. The markers are not required to read any appendix during the marking of the dissertation.
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||||||
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**** Section and item numbering
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Paragraphs are justified on both sides and start with an indent. Section numbering is numeric, with `section' headings in bold but sub-section and subsub-section headings in italics. Each heading is preceded and followed by some space (about 6pt or half a line).
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Figures, tables, and equations are numbered consecutively: Figure 1, Figure 2, Table 1, Table 2, (1), (2), and so on. That means that they are not sub-numbered for each section, so no Figure 1.2. However, a figure might have two or more graphs. In that case, each graph is labelled a), b) and so on. Similarly, equations can be single equations such as
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\begin{equation}\label{eq1}
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e = m c^2
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\end{equation}
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or they could be a set of equations, using the environment `subequation' from the subcaption package,
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\begin{subequations} \label{eq2}
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\begin{gather}
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C_p = \frac{p}{\frac{1}{2} \rho U^2} \label{eq2a} \\
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C_P = \frac{P}{\frac{1}{2} \rho A U^3} \label{eq2b}
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\end{gather}
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\end{subequations}
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When referring to these objects in the text, you can use either `figure~\ref{exFigure}', `Figure~\ref{exFigure}', or `Fig~\ref{exFigure}', as long as you do it consistently. A specific graph in a multi-graph figure would be referred to as, for example Fig.~2b. Likewise, for referring to a table, you would use table, Table, or Tab.~\ref{Tab:method}, and equations are referred to as Eq.~(\ref{eq1}), Equations~(\ref{eq2}) or equation~(\ref{eq2b}).
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*** References
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||||||
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These must follow the style of the journal used in the `References' at the end of this template, with an example for citing a journal article given by \cite{article}, for a contribution to conference proceedings by \cite{proc1}, and for a book by \cite{book1} or a chapter \citep{bookchapter}. If you do need to refer to websites, for example for data sources, an example is given by \cite{MIDAS} or \citep{web1}.
|
||||||
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||||||
|
You can create your own *.bib file using EndNote or Mendeley and then extract and format the cited references using BibTeX.
|
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|
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* Introduction
|
* Introduction
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# - Background on Cobalt-Based Superalloys (2-3 paragraphs)
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# - Background on Cobalt-Based Superalloys (2-3 paragraphs)
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@ -338,7 +374,7 @@ Our results provide a clear processing strategy for engineering cobalt-based all
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# Cavitation erosion
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# Cavitation erosion
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# Principal alloying philosophy
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# Principal alloying philosophy
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# Type of carbides and how solid solution
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# Type of carbides and how solid solution
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Cavitation erosion, the mechanical degradation of surfaces due to collapse of bubbles and the resulting high-frequency high-pressure shock waves, is a common failure mechanism that limits the durability and service life of hydraulic components operating in aggressive service environment \cite{houCavitationErosionMechanisms2020, ashworthMicrostructurePropertyRelationships1999}.
|
Cavitation erosion, the mechanical degradation of surfaces due to collapse of bubbles and the resulting high-frequency high-pressure shock waves, is a common failure mechanism that limits the durability and service life of hydraulic components operating in aggressive service environment \cite{houCavitationErosionMechanisms2020, ashworthMicrostructurePropertyRelationships1999}. Bubbles filled with vapor or dissolved gases form in low pressure regions and implode violently in areas of higher pressure.
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# \cite{ashworthMicrostructurePropertyRelationships1999}
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# \cite{ashworthMicrostructurePropertyRelationships1999}
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@ -347,8 +383,37 @@ Cavitation erosion, the mechanical degradation of surfaces due to collapse of bu
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Stellites, a family of cobalt-based superallys, are widely used in industry to resist cavitation, in addition to their strength, wear resistance, and corrosion/oxidation resistance at high temperatures.
|
Stellites, a family of cobalt-based superallys, are widely used in industry to resist cavitation, in addition to their strength, wear resistance, and corrosion/oxidation resistance at high temperatures.
|
||||||
The main alloying elements of cobalt (Co), chromium (Cr, 25-33 wt.%), tungsten (W) or molybdenum (Mo) (up to 18 wt.%), and carbon (C, 0.1-3.3 wt.%) \cite{davisNickelCobaltTheir2000, ferozhkhanMetallurgicalStudyStellite2017}, form a composite-like microstrucuture consisting of a ductile cobalt-rich solid solution, which absorbs energy through a sluggish FCC to HCP phase transformation, with embedded hard carbide phases \cite{ahmedSlidingWearBlended2021a, crookCobaltbaseAlloysResist1994, nevilleAqueousCorrosionCobalt2010, zhangFrictionWearCharacterization2002}.
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The main alloying elements of stellite are cobalt (Co), chromium (Cr, 25-33 wt.%), tungsten (W) and/or molybdenum (Mo) (up to 18 wt.%), and carbon (C, 0.1-3.3 wt.%) \cite{davisNickelCobaltTheir2000, ferozhkhanMetallurgicalStudyStellite2017}, which form a composite-like microstrucuture consisting of a ductile cobalt-rich solid solution, that absorbs energy through a sluggish FCC to HCP phase transformation, with embedded hard carbide phases \cite{ahmedSlidingWearBlended2021a, crookCobaltbaseAlloysResist1994, nevilleAqueousCorrosionCobalt2010, zhangFrictionWearCharacterization2002}.
|
||||||
The proportion and type of carbides depend on carbon content and the relative amounts of chromium (of carbide type $\textrm{M}_{7}\textrm{C}_{3}$, $\textrm{M}_{23}\textrm{C}_{6}$) and tungsten and molybdenum (of carbide type $\textrm{M}_{6}\textrm{C}$, $\textrm{M}_{12}\textrm{C}$), with the solid solution strengthened by incorporating the elements not consumed in carbides.
|
The proportion and type of carbides depend on carbon content and the relative amounts of chromium (of carbide type $\textrm{M}_{7}\textrm{C}_{3}$, $\textrm{M}_{23}\textrm{C}_{6}$) and tungsten and molybdenum (of carbide type $\textrm{M}_{6}\textrm{C}$, $\textrm{M}_{12}\textrm{C}$), with the solid solution strengthened by incorporating the elements not consumed in carbides.
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Several investigations have sought to develop mathematical models that link the weight percentages of key elements,
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to the hardness of the alloy,
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Chen et al \cite{chenCharacterisationsElectrosparkDeposition2010} find that electro-spark deposition of Stellite 6 on 316L steel creates a uniform coating with fine microstructure and has greater corrosion resistance than a plasma cladding layer of Stellite 6, and attribute it to the rapid solidification process.
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Hoffard et al found that electro-spark deposition of Stellite 6 performs worse than as-welded Stellite 6,
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\cite{hoffardCavitationErosionElectro}
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||||||
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||||||
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Collier et al find that increased carbide content due to increased molybdenum content has beneficial properties to increasing hardness and reducing wear rates \cite{collierTribologicalPerformanceMolybdenum2020}
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||||||
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||||||
|
Ahmed et al find that Vicker's microhardness and yield strength are approximately linearly proportional to the wt% of carbon and tungsten, $H = 242.26 \left( \frac{W wt%}{16.30} + \frac{C wt%}{3.21} \right) + 256.33$, where the constants are related to the maximum tungsten and carbon content in the blended alloys studied \cite{ahmedMappingMechanicalProperties2024}.
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||||||
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||||||
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||||||
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Yu et al \cite{yuInfluenceManufacturingProcess2008} find that HIPed Stellite 6 and 20 alloys have significantly high contact fatigue resistance and impact toughness.
|
||||||
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|
||||||
|
Heathcock et al note find that as-cast Stellite 20 had lower cavitation erosion resistance compared to as-cast Stellite 3, despite Stellite 20 having higher tungsten and chromium content, and attribute the difference to microstructure morphology; Stellite 3 had a fine inderdendritic network of carbides in a tough cobalt-rich solid solution while Stellite 20 had needle-like Cr7C3 and islands of cobalt-rich solid solution embedded in a brittle complex carbide eutectic which was more prone to cracking and erosion \cite{heathcockCavitationErosionCobaltbased1981}.
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||||||
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# Too preachy
|
||||||
|
# However, the total volume fraction of carbides is not the only microstructural parameter of importance. The morphology—that is, the size, shape, and distribution of the phases—also plays a critical role. The fine, well-dispersed dendritic and eutectic structures produced by the rapid solidification inherent in additive manufacturing processes often lead to higher hardness and improved mechanical properties compared to the coarse, networked carbides found in conventional castings, even at similar overall compositions. Conversely, detrimental phase morphologies, such as the continuous oxide networks that can form along splat boundaries in HVOF coatings, can act as preferential sites for crack initiation and lead to delamination during wear, a failure mechanism governed by phase distribution rather than just bulk fraction.
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
The size and distribution of the carbides, and the resulting microstructure, is heavily dependent on its manufacturing process, especially the rate of solidification. For instance, the slow freezing rates inherent to traditional casting lead to a microstructure of large, dendritic carbides characterized by elemental segregation. Conversely, powder metallurgy creates a highly homogeneous microstructure with small, spherical carbides by largely retaining the properties of the initial powder \cite{yuInfluenceManufacturingProcess2008, wong-kianComparisonErosioncorrosionBehaviour}.
|
The size and distribution of the carbides, and the resulting microstructure, is heavily dependent on its manufacturing process, especially the rate of solidification. For instance, the slow freezing rates inherent to traditional casting lead to a microstructure of large, dendritic carbides characterized by elemental segregation. Conversely, powder metallurgy creates a highly homogeneous microstructure with small, spherical carbides by largely retaining the properties of the initial powder \cite{yuInfluenceManufacturingProcess2008, wong-kianComparisonErosioncorrosionBehaviour}.
|
||||||
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|
||||||
# Is great info, but maybe best suited for the WORK REPORT
|
# Is great info, but maybe best suited for the WORK REPORT
|
||||||
@ -368,6 +433,9 @@ found that high carbon Stellite alloys benefitted from higher hipping temperatur
|
|||||||
Yu et al \cite{yuInfluenceManufacturingProcess2008} found that HIPed stellite 6 had lower fatigue performance to HIPed stellite 20.
|
Yu et al \cite{yuInfluenceManufacturingProcess2008} found that HIPed stellite 6 had lower fatigue performance to HIPed stellite 20.
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
Laser-cladded Stellite alloys exhibit a more refined microstructure when compared to their cast counterparts, as found by Bozzi et al. \cite{bozziMicroabrasiveWearBehavior2023}.
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
frenkMicrostructuralEffectsSliding1994 has good notes on effects of manufacturing
|
frenkMicrostructuralEffectsSliding1994 has good notes on effects of manufacturing
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
# Heathcock and Ball, 79 compared the cavitation erosion resistance of a number of Stellite alloys, (3, 4, 6, 8, 20, and 2006), cemented carbides and surface-treated alloy steels. They showed that among the Stellite alloys, Stellite 3 has the highest resistance to cavitation erosion. Stellite 4, 6, 8, and 20 have similar resistance and Stellite 2006 is a little less resistant than all the Stellite alloys. They considered this difference to be a consequence of the microstructure. \cite{heathcockCavitationErosionCobaltbased1981}
|
# Heathcock and Ball, 79 compared the cavitation erosion resistance of a number of Stellite alloys, (3, 4, 6, 8, 20, and 2006), cemented carbides and surface-treated alloy steels. They showed that among the Stellite alloys, Stellite 3 has the highest resistance to cavitation erosion. Stellite 4, 6, 8, and 20 have similar resistance and Stellite 2006 is a little less resistant than all the Stellite alloys. They considered this difference to be a consequence of the microstructure. \cite{heathcockCavitationErosionCobaltbased1981}
|
||||||
@ -557,55 +625,34 @@ Total & 6000 & 10 Figures and 3 Tables\tabularnewline
|
|||||||
|
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
* COMMENT Style guide
|
** Hardness
|
||||||
** Page and text formatting
|
|
||||||
If you use the provided templates, the style requirements are already the default settings --- so don't tinker with them! This LaTeX template is based on the Elsevier class but using 11pt (instead of the standard 10pt). We use the single-column format for practical reasons.
|
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
The document has to be prepared for the UK standard paper of A4 size with a text area of 16.45~cm by 21.9~cm using single columns at a `normal' serif font (e.g., Times New Roman or Cambria) with font size 11pt.
|
The cavitation erosion resistance depends on material properties, with the highest cavitation erosion resistance exhibited by materials with
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
** Word count
|
homogeneous and fine-grained structure
|
||||||
#+LaTeX: \label{S:Wordcount}
|
|
||||||
The expected word count is between 5000 and 7000 words. The word count includes everything from the start of the Introduction to the end of the Conclusions, including text in figure captions and tables. Excluded from the word count is the front matter (from the title to the end of the abstracts and key words) and the end matter (acknowledgements, references, appendices).
|
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
If you try to cheat the word count by having a lot of important information in appendices: remember that appendices only provide supplementary material, not essential material for the assessment. The markers are not required to read any appendix during the marking of the dissertation.
|
Hardness is the most mentioned property, along with Young's modulus.
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
*** Section and item numbering
|
Heyman noted the existence of an exponential correlation between hardness
|
||||||
Paragraphs are justified on both sides and start with an indent. Section numbering is numeric, with `section' headings in bold but sub-section and subsub-section headings in italics. Each heading is preceded and followed by some space (about 6pt or half a line).
|
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
Figures, tables, and equations are numbered consecutively: Figure 1, Figure 2, Table 1, Table 2, (1), (2), and so on. That means that they are not sub-numbered for each section, so no Figure 1.2. However, a figure might have two or more graphs. In that case, each graph is labelled a), b) and so on. Similarly, equations can be single equations such as
|
* Methodology and Apparatus
|
||||||
\begin{equation}\label{eq1}
|
|
||||||
e = m c^2
|
|
||||||
\end{equation}
|
|
||||||
or they could be a set of equations, using the environment `subequation' from the subcaption package,
|
|
||||||
\begin{subequations} \label{eq2}
|
|
||||||
\begin{gather}
|
|
||||||
C_p = \frac{p}{\frac{1}{2} \rho U^2} \label{eq2a} \\
|
|
||||||
C_P = \frac{P}{\frac{1}{2} \rho A U^3} \label{eq2b}
|
|
||||||
\end{gather}
|
|
||||||
\end{subequations}
|
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
When referring to these objects in the text, you can use either `figure~\ref{exFigure}', `Figure~\ref{exFigure}', or `Fig~\ref{exFigure}', as long as you do it consistently. A specific graph in a multi-graph figure would be referred to as, for example Fig.~2b. Likewise, for referring to a table, you would use table, Table, or Tab.~\ref{Tab:method}, and equations are referred to as Eq.~(\ref{eq1}), Equations~(\ref{eq2}) or equation~(\ref{eq2b}).
|
# Clear description of how you approached the problem and what you did (NOT, what somebody else should do...).
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
** References
|
# This might start with an introductory paragraph providing a high-level description of your overall approach, then some specific subsections on your data sources, the methods to obtain your primary research data, sections on the instrumentation (including their accuracy and precision) or simulation software used, followed by a section how you used those tools, and complemented by an introduction to any more advanced analysis method you might have applied for the secondary analysis.
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
These must follow the style of the journal used in the `References' at the end of this template, with an example for citing a journal article given by \cite{article}, for a contribution to conference proceedings by \cite{proc1}, and for a book by \cite{book1} or a chapter \citep{bookchapter}. If you do need to refer to websites, for example for data sources, an example is given by \cite{MIDAS} or \citep{web1}.
|
# Especially in the description of your experiments or other activities, tables can be useful to summarise the key information, such as Table \ref{Tab:method}. Make sure it is complete but not too complex. Consider putting large tables in an appendix, but keep in mind the role of appendices mentioned in Section~\ref{S:Wordcount}.
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
You can create your own *.bib file using EndNote or Mendeley and then extract and format the cited references using BibTeX.
|
** Cavitation erosion test
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
Cavitation erosion was evaluated in accordance with the ASTM G32-06 standard using a 500 W ultrasonic vibratory apparatus (Fig. 1) operating at a frequency of 20 kHz and a peak-to-peak amplitude of 100 µm. As-cast specimens were fabricated as discs (31 mm diameter×8 mm height), whereas hot isostatically pressed (HIPed) specimens were cuboids (25×25×13 mm). Prior to testing, all surfaces were ground to a 1000-grit finish and subsequently polished with a 0.25 µm diamond suspension. Tests were conducted by immersing specimens in a seawater bath maintained at 25±1 °C. To quantify erosion, specimens were removed from testing apparatus after test duration of 1 hr, rinsed with distilled water, and ultrasonically cleaned in acetone. Mass loss was measured using an electronic balance with a precision of 0.01 mg; each reported value is the average of three consecutive measurements.
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
* Results
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
# Describe the results and the results of their analysis
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
* COMMENT Methodology and Apparatus
|
The resistance of as-cast and HIPed Stellite 1 to cavitation erosion is presented by the curves of mass/volume loss in exposure time.
|
||||||
|
|
||||||
Clear description of how you approached the problem and what you did (NOT, what somebody else should do...).
|
|
||||||
|
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This might start with an introductory paragraph providing a high-level description of your overall approach, then some specific subsections on your data sources, the methods to obtain your primary research data, sections on the instrumentation (including their accuracy and precision) or simulation software used, followed by a section how you used those tools, and complemented by an introduction to any more advanced analysis method you might have applied for the secondary analysis.
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Especially in the description of your experiments or other activities, tables can be useful to summarise the key information, such as Table \ref{Tab:method}. Make sure it is complete but not too complex. Consider putting large tables in an appendix, but keep in mind the role of appendices mentioned in Section~\ref{S:Wordcount}.
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* COMMENT Results
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Describe the results and the results of their analysis
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** Carbide volume analysis
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** Carbide volume analysis
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@ -644,6 +691,41 @@ Try to build up your many results into a systematic analysis which distills the
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The as-cast Stellite 1 alloy had a hypereutectic microstructure, with the Cr-rich (dark) carbides having a composition of $(Cr_{0.75}Co_{0.20}W_{0.05})_7C_3)} and identified as ${M}_{7}{C}_{3}$, and W-rich (dark) regions having a composition of $(Co_{0.6}W_{0.6})_{12}C$ and identified as ${M}_{12}C$. Cr-rich carbides
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The as-cast Stellite 1 alloy had a hypereutectic microstructure, with the Cr-rich (dark) carbides having a composition of $(Cr_{0.75}Co_{0.20}W_{0.05})_7C_3)} and identified as ${M}_{7}{C}_{3}$, and W-rich (dark) regions having a composition of $(Co_{0.6}W_{0.6})_{12}C$ and identified as ${M}_{12}C$. Cr-rich carbides
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# Generally, the cavitation erosion resistance of materials is known to be less dependent on the hard precipitates than the matrix phase.
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Stellite's cavitation erosion resistance depends more on its matrix phase than on its hard precipitates <?>
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# Cite all the papers after this sentence over here as well
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Ion implantation is a surface modification technique that deposits ions like nitrogen, manganese, and titanium to improve tribological properties, and causes microstructural effects and phase transformation effects in cobalt-based alloys.
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\cite{dillichStructuralChangesCobaltbased1987, szalaEffectManganeseIon2022, szalaEffectNitrogenIon2021, szalaPhenomenologicalModelCavitation2023, yamanakaDevelopingHighStrength2016, poshtahaniPlasmaNitridingEffect2023}.
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# Unimplanted stellite ε-rich matrix is less prone to plastic deformation than γ and consequently, increase of γ phase effectively holds carbides in cobalt matrix and prevents Cr7C3 debonding. This phenomenon elongates three times the CE incubation stage, slows erosion rate and mitigates the material loss.
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Manganese ion implantation appears to have minimal effect on the cavitation erosion and microstructue of Stellite 6 \cite{szalaEffectManganeseIon2022}
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Dillich et al find that titanium ion implantation inhibits debonding at carbide-matrix interfaces and contributes additional toughness to the matrix of cobalt-based alloys
|
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\cite{dillichStructuralChangesCobaltbased1987}.
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Szala et al find that nitrogen ion implantation promotes $\epsilon(hcp) \rightarrow \gamma(fcc)$ phase transformation, and argue that as the fcc structure bonds Cr7C3 carbides in matrix and mitigates matrix ductile fracture, promoting the fcc phase and delaying the $\gamma \rightarrow \epsilon$ martensitic phase transformation is responsible for the superior performace of nitrogen-implanted Stellite 6.
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\cite{szalaEffectNitrogenIon2021, szalaPhenomenologicalModelCavitation2023}
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Yamanaka et al note that carbon implantation increases stacking fault energy (SFE), ie the stability of the gamma phase, and ductility of the matrix, although excess carbon implantation beyond 0.1 wt% leads to carbide precipitation and reduction in ductility
|
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\cite{yamanakaDevelopingHighStrength2016}.
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Poshtahani et al find that plasma nitriding results in hard nitrided phases (CrN, CoN, W_2N) that increase hardness and wear properties of Stellite 6 and 12, and that the depleted chromium in the matrix due to nitriding was an obstacle to forming protective chromium oxide layers, resulting in decreased corrosion resistance
|
||||||
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\cite{poshtahaniPlasmaNitridingEffect2023}.
|
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||||||
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Despite the
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||||||
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The relationship between erosion resistance and the chemical composition of Stellite alloys has not yet been systematized or published in a broader publication.
|
||||||
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|
||||||
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|
||||||
** Carbide volume fraction
|
** Carbide volume fraction
|
||||||
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|
||||||
As hard phases (carbides and intermetallics) contribute to hardness and wear resistance, it is beneficial to estimate the volume fraction of different phases, through thresholding BSE images
|
As hard phases (carbides and intermetallics) contribute to hardness and wear resistance, it is beneficial to estimate the volume fraction of different phases, through thresholding BSE images
|
||||||
@ -655,6 +737,12 @@ Stellite 1 includes two kinds of carbides, chromium rich carbides and tungsten-r
|
|||||||
ratiaComparisonSlidingWear2019
|
ratiaComparisonSlidingWear2019
|
||||||
The total volume fraction of carbides
|
The total volume fraction of carbides
|
||||||
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|
||||||
|
** Cavitation erosion mechanism
|
||||||
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|
||||||
|
Eroded surfaces of as-cast and HIPed Stellite 1 were observed by scanning electron microscopy to clarify the erosion mechanism. In the center of the cavitation crater, material removal is observed in both as-cast and HIPed samples
|
||||||
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|
||||||
|
The original surface was exposed to the high-frequency collapses of cavitation bubbles resulting in plastic deformation of the material surface, especially at the boundary with the neighbouring carbide. The plastic deformation produces a step relative to the adjacent grain, resulting in crack initiation. The crack initiation near the boundary results in erosion of the matrix near the carbide, which may be seen as preferential erosion at matrix-carbide boundaries. With the loss of support of the nearby matrix, carbides are removed, revealing the matrix underneath.
|
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Loading…
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Reference in New Issue
Block a user