diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes index 1b952cd..e7ca3aa 100644 --- a/.gitattributes +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -574,5 +574,8 @@ /non_academic_paper_references/equipment_manuals/potentiostat/Training[[:space:]]videos/Tafel[[:space:]]data[[:space:]]import[[:space:]]to[[:space:]]Origin[[:space:]]for[[:space:]]graphing.mp4 filter=lfs diff=lfs merge=lfs -text /non_academic_paper_references/equipment_manuals/potentiostat/Training[[:space:]]videos/Tafel[[:space:]]fitting.mp4 filter=lfs diff=lfs merge=lfs -text /Electrochemical/Cast_Stellite1_Sample1_Actual/.ipynb_checkpoints/OCP-checkpoint.cor filter=lfs diff=lfs merge=lfs -text +/Figures/Co_Mo_C_phasediagram_zhangThermodynamicModelingCCoMo2016.png filter=lfs diff=lfs merge=lfs -text +/Figures/Co_Mo_phasediagram_davydovThermodynamicAssessmentCoMo1999.png filter=lfs diff=lfs merge=lfs -text +/Thesis.bbl-SAVE-ERROR filter=lfs diff=lfs merge=lfs -text *.jp*g filter=lfs diff=lfs merge=lfs -text *.tif filter=lfs diff=lfs merge=lfs -text diff --git a/Figures/Co_Mo_C_phasediagram_zhangThermodynamicModelingCCoMo2016.png b/Figures/Co_Mo_C_phasediagram_zhangThermodynamicModelingCCoMo2016.png new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f012dd3 --- /dev/null +++ b/Figures/Co_Mo_C_phasediagram_zhangThermodynamicModelingCCoMo2016.png @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +version https://git-lfs.github.com/spec/v1 +oid sha256:8d4f79f9e5b4e7fc9340a39f9d4a0287196f8e98ef6a665863a605218593a370 +size 152071 diff --git a/Figures/Co_Mo_phasediagram_davydovThermodynamicAssessmentCoMo1999.png b/Figures/Co_Mo_phasediagram_davydovThermodynamicAssessmentCoMo1999.png new file mode 100644 index 0000000..25a4d93 --- /dev/null +++ b/Figures/Co_Mo_phasediagram_davydovThermodynamicAssessmentCoMo1999.png @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +version https://git-lfs.github.com/spec/v1 +oid sha256:a93619ad2f8d72f863579999b8d216875797cb73bb70775117ecf8e66bdb2f6e +size 170512 diff --git a/Thesis.bbl b/Thesis.bbl index ca1757f..93aa2f0 100644 --- a/Thesis.bbl +++ b/Thesis.bbl @@ -1,3 +1,3 @@ version https://git-lfs.github.com/spec/v1 -oid sha256:a80f31781ffd72529dc9dd47d4bf8d699428b745c43430177857d3e04b36a38c -size 134995 +oid sha256:8ecfc39e879be90f3e9f8b3069b082b9479752dadee7dab0336200ac21852a26 +size 193663 diff --git a/Thesis.bbl-SAVE-ERROR b/Thesis.bbl-SAVE-ERROR index 4bcac41..5a5c650 100644 --- a/Thesis.bbl-SAVE-ERROR +++ b/Thesis.bbl-SAVE-ERROR @@ -1,1568 +1,3 @@ -% $ biblatex auxiliary file $ -% $ biblatex bbl format version 3.3 $ -% Do not modify the above lines! -% -% This is an auxiliary file used by the 'biblatex' package. -% This file may safely be deleted. It will be recreated by -% biber as required. -% -\begingroup -\makeatletter -\@ifundefined{ver@biblatex.sty} - {\@latex@error - {Missing 'biblatex' package} - {The bibliography requires the 'biblatex' package.} - \aftergroup\endinput} - {} -\endgroup - - -\refsection{0} - \datalist[entry]{none/global//global/global/global} - \entry{ahmedStructurePropertyRelationships2014}{article}{}{} - \name{author}{4}{}{% - {{hash=73be20d7f1a5cbb337df0ca58a8fa420}{% - family={Ahmed}, - familyi={A\bibinitperiod}, - given={R.}, - giveni={R\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=75bf7913ab7463c6e3734bec975046fc}{% - family={Villiers\bibnamedelima Lovelock}, - familyi={V\bibinitperiod\bibinitdelim L\bibinitperiod}, - given={H.\bibnamedelimi L.}, - giveni={H\bibinitperiod\bibinitdelim L\bibinitperiod}, - prefix={de}, - prefixi={d\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=1c8f35a67217a8f6cbd1f8d3edb797b0}{% - family={Faisal}, - familyi={F\bibinitperiod}, - given={N.\bibnamedelimi H.}, - giveni={N\bibinitperiod\bibinitdelim H\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=0e68382b25995f7a55c9b600def7c365}{% - family={Davies}, - familyi={D\bibinitperiod}, - given={S.}, - giveni={S\bibinitperiod}}}% - } - \strng{namehash}{82fc6b0dd69b51d07006a5e8127c7a8f} - \strng{fullhash}{0ba22f8fbb626d88357e4651c3f66f4d} - \strng{fullhashraw}{0ba22f8fbb626d88357e4651c3f66f4d} - \strng{bibnamehash}{0ba22f8fbb626d88357e4651c3f66f4d} - \strng{authorbibnamehash}{0ba22f8fbb626d88357e4651c3f66f4d} - \strng{authornamehash}{82fc6b0dd69b51d07006a5e8127c7a8f} - \strng{authorfullhash}{0ba22f8fbb626d88357e4651c3f66f4d} - \strng{authorfullhashraw}{0ba22f8fbb626d88357e4651c3f66f4d} - \field{extraname}{1} - \field{sortinit}{1} - \field{sortinithash}{4f6aaa89bab872aa0999fec09ff8e98a} - \field{labelnamesource}{author} - \field{labeltitlesource}{title} - \field{abstract}{This investigation considered the multiscale tribo-mechanical evaluations of CoCrMo (Stellite®21) alloys manufactured via two different processing routes of casting and HIP-consolidation from powder (Hot Isostatic Pressing). These involved hardness, nanoscratch, impact toughness, abrasive wear and sliding wear evaluations using pin-on-disc and ball-on-flat tests. HIPing improved the nanoscratch and ball-on-flat sliding wear performance due to higher hardness and work-hardening rate of the metal matrix. The cast alloy however exhibited superior abrasive wear and self-mated pin-on-disc wear performance. The tribological properties were more strongly influenced by the CoCr matrix, which is demonstrated in nanoscratch analysis.} - \field{issn}{0301-679X} - \field{journaltitle}{Tribology International} - \field{month}{12} - \field{note}{24 citations (Semantic Scholar/DOI) [2025-04-12]} - \field{title}{Structure–property relationships in a {CoCrMo} alloy at micro and nano-scales} - \field{urlday}{30} - \field{urlmonth}{6} - \field{urlyear}{2024} - \field{volume}{80} - \field{year}{2014} - \field{urldateera}{ce} - \field{pages}{98\bibrangedash 114} - \range{pages}{17} - \verb{doi} - \verb 10.1016/j.triboint.2014.06.015 - \endverb - \verb{urlraw} - \verb https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301679X14002436 - \endverb - \verb{url} - \verb https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301679X14002436 - \endverb - \keyw{Manufacturing,Nanoscratch,Nanotribology,Wear} - \endentry - \entry{malayogluComparingPerformanceHIPed2003}{article}{}{} - \name{author}{2}{}{% - {{hash=71f57eb10950396ed3fa62c703ddaee5}{% - family={Malayoglu}, - familyi={M\bibinitperiod}, - given={U.}, - giveni={U\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=c00a172220606f67c3da2492047a9b71}{% - family={Neville}, - familyi={N\bibinitperiod}, - given={A.}, - giveni={A\bibinitperiod}}}% - } - \strng{namehash}{49054a18ed24a57daa4c3278c94c6ce5} - \strng{fullhash}{49054a18ed24a57daa4c3278c94c6ce5} - \strng{fullhashraw}{49054a18ed24a57daa4c3278c94c6ce5} - \strng{bibnamehash}{49054a18ed24a57daa4c3278c94c6ce5} - \strng{authorbibnamehash}{49054a18ed24a57daa4c3278c94c6ce5} - \strng{authornamehash}{49054a18ed24a57daa4c3278c94c6ce5} - \strng{authorfullhash}{49054a18ed24a57daa4c3278c94c6ce5} - \strng{authorfullhashraw}{49054a18ed24a57daa4c3278c94c6ce5} - \field{sortinit}{2} - \field{sortinithash}{8b555b3791beccb63322c22f3320aa9a} - \field{labelnamesource}{author} - \field{labeltitlesource}{title} - \field{abstract}{In this paper, results from erosion–corrosion tests performed under liquid–solid erosion conditions in 3.5\% NaCl liquid medium are reported. The focus of the paper is to compare the behaviour of Cast and Hot Isostatically Pressed (HIPed) Stellite 6 alloy in terms of their electrochemical corrosion characteristics, their resistance to mechanical degradation and relationship between microstructure and degradation mechanisms. It has been shown that HIPed Stellite 6 possesses better erosion and erosion corrosion resistance than that of Cast Stellite 6 and two stainless steels (UNS S32760 and UNS S31603) under the same solid loading (200 and 500mg/l), and same temperature (20 and 50°C). The material removal mechanisms have been identified by using atomic force microscopy (AFM) and shown preferential removal of the Co-rich matrix to be less extensive on the HIPed material.} - \field{issn}{0043-1648} - \field{journaltitle}{Wear} - \field{month}{8} - \field{note}{34 citations (Semantic Scholar/DOI) [2025-04-12]} - \field{number}{1} - \field{series}{14th {International} {Conference} on {Wear} of {Materials}} - \field{title}{Comparing the performance of {HIPed} and {Cast} {Stellite} 6 alloy in liquid–solid slurries} - \field{urlday}{17} - \field{urlmonth}{2} - \field{urlyear}{2025} - \field{volume}{255} - \field{year}{2003} - \field{urldateera}{ce} - \field{pages}{181\bibrangedash 194} - \range{pages}{14} - \verb{doi} - \verb 10.1016/S0043-1648(03)00287-4 - \endverb - \verb{urlraw} - \verb https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0043164803002874 - \endverb - \verb{url} - \verb https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0043164803002874 - \endverb - \keyw{Cast Stellite 6,Corrosion,Erosion,HIPed,Liquid–solid slurries} - \endentry - \entry{davis2000nickel}{book}{}{} - \name{author}{2}{}{% - {{hash=d24975e937cc4c8eafeb981d8d16a1d4}{% - family={Davis}, - familyi={D\bibinitperiod}, - given={J.R.}, - giveni={J\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=2e482fdb03378296689bc75a76c2bdc4}{% - family={Committee}, - familyi={C\bibinitperiod}, - given={A.S.M.I.H.}, - giveni={A\bibinitperiod}}}% - } - \list{publisher}{1}{% - {ASM International}% - } - \strng{namehash}{ded5e703628bfa51629c3e9340068998} - \strng{fullhash}{ded5e703628bfa51629c3e9340068998} - \strng{fullhashraw}{ded5e703628bfa51629c3e9340068998} - \strng{bibnamehash}{ded5e703628bfa51629c3e9340068998} - \strng{authorbibnamehash}{ded5e703628bfa51629c3e9340068998} - \strng{authornamehash}{ded5e703628bfa51629c3e9340068998} - \strng{authorfullhash}{ded5e703628bfa51629c3e9340068998} - \strng{authorfullhashraw}{ded5e703628bfa51629c3e9340068998} - \field{sortinit}{3} - \field{sortinithash}{ad6fe7482ffbd7b9f99c9e8b5dccd3d7} - \field{labelnamesource}{author} - \field{labeltitlesource}{title} - \field{isbn}{978-0-87170-685-0} - \field{note}{tex.lccn: 00059348} - \field{series}{{ASM} specialty handbook} - \field{title}{Nickel, cobalt, and their alloys} - \field{year}{2000} - \verb{urlraw} - \verb https://books.google.ae/books?id=IePhmnbmRWkC - \endverb - \verb{url} - \verb https://books.google.ae/books?id=IePhmnbmRWkC - \endverb - \endentry - \entry{alimardaniEffectLocalizedDynamic2010}{article}{}{} - \name{author}{4}{}{% - {{hash=b1d020be51ce7b141b4cf03868da762c}{% - family={Alimardani}, - familyi={A\bibinitperiod}, - given={Masoud}, - giveni={M\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=44e10f283ada211ed0a7aa6d9913d23f}{% - family={Fallah}, - familyi={F\bibinitperiod}, - given={Vahid}, - giveni={V\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=5aaf85cb279ac1471a04ce9c932a1122}{% - family={Khajepour}, - familyi={K\bibinitperiod}, - given={Amir}, - giveni={A\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=88451951b0b3c1cc4383d3cebfc151ac}{% - family={Toyserkani}, - familyi={T\bibinitperiod}, - given={Ehsan}, - giveni={E\bibinitperiod}}}% - } - \strng{namehash}{86846ed827567cfd839f7c014178ad64} - \strng{fullhash}{6d9fe21dc14c2e93f67f0a8f73f5082f} - \strng{fullhashraw}{6d9fe21dc14c2e93f67f0a8f73f5082f} - \strng{bibnamehash}{6d9fe21dc14c2e93f67f0a8f73f5082f} - \strng{authorbibnamehash}{6d9fe21dc14c2e93f67f0a8f73f5082f} - \strng{authornamehash}{86846ed827567cfd839f7c014178ad64} - \strng{authorfullhash}{6d9fe21dc14c2e93f67f0a8f73f5082f} - \strng{authorfullhashraw}{6d9fe21dc14c2e93f67f0a8f73f5082f} - \field{sortinit}{5} - \field{sortinithash}{20e9b4b0b173788c5dace24730f47d8c} - \field{labelnamesource}{author} - \field{labeltitlesource}{title} - \field{abstract}{In laser cladding, high cooling rates create outcomes with superior mechanical and metallurgical properties. However, this characteristic along with the additive nature of the process significantly contributes to the formation of thermal stresses which are the main cause of any potential delamination and crack formation across the deposited layers. This drawback is more prominent for additive materials such as Stellite 1 which are by nature crack-sensitive during the hardfacing process. In this work, parallel to the experimental investigation, a numerical model is used to study the temperature distributions and thermal stresses throughout the deposition of Stellite 1 for hardfacing application. To manage the thermal stresses, the effect of preheating the substrate in a localized dynamic fashion is investigated. The numerical and experimental analyses are conducted by the deposition of Stellite 1 powder on the substrate of AISI-SAE 4340 alloy steel using a 1.1kW fiber laser. Experimental results confirm that by preheating the substrate a crack-free coating layer of Stellite 1 well-bonded to the substrate with a uniform dendritic structure, well-distributed throughout the deposited layer, can be obtained contrary to non-uniform structures formed in the coating of the non-preheated substrate with several cracks.} - \field{issn}{0257-8972} - \field{journaltitle}{Surface and Coatings Technology} - \field{month}{8} - \field{note}{64 citations (Semantic Scholar/DOI) [2025-04-12]} - \field{number}{23} - \field{title}{The effect of localized dynamic surface preheating in laser cladding of {Stellite} 1} - \field{urlday}{31} - \field{urlmonth}{3} - \field{urlyear}{2025} - \field{volume}{204} - \field{year}{2010} - \field{urldateera}{ce} - \field{pages}{3911\bibrangedash 3919} - \range{pages}{9} - \verb{doi} - \verb 10.1016/j.surfcoat.2010.05.009 - \endverb - \verb{urlraw} - \verb https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0257897210003701 - \endverb - \verb{url} - \verb https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0257897210003701 - \endverb - \keyw{Crack formation,Hardfacing alloys,Laser cladding,Preheating process,Temperature and thermal stress fields} - \endentry - \entry{ahmedMappingMechanicalProperties2023}{article}{}{} - \name{author}{3}{}{% - {{hash=73be20d7f1a5cbb337df0ca58a8fa420}{% - family={Ahmed}, - familyi={A\bibinitperiod}, - given={R.}, - giveni={R\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=8da5f61983121a25e044ca92bd036b2a}{% - family={Fardan}, - familyi={F\bibinitperiod}, - given={A.}, - giveni={A\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=0e68382b25995f7a55c9b600def7c365}{% - family={Davies}, - familyi={D\bibinitperiod}, - given={S.}, - giveni={S\bibinitperiod}}}% - } - \strng{namehash}{82fc6b0dd69b51d07006a5e8127c7a8f} - \strng{fullhash}{b3a15b2b31620e3640b3b3a16271687c} - \strng{fullhashraw}{b3a15b2b31620e3640b3b3a16271687c} - \strng{bibnamehash}{b3a15b2b31620e3640b3b3a16271687c} - \strng{authorbibnamehash}{b3a15b2b31620e3640b3b3a16271687c} - \strng{authornamehash}{82fc6b0dd69b51d07006a5e8127c7a8f} - \strng{authorfullhash}{b3a15b2b31620e3640b3b3a16271687c} - \strng{authorfullhashraw}{b3a15b2b31620e3640b3b3a16271687c} - \field{extraname}{2} - \field{sortinit}{6} - \field{sortinithash}{b33bc299efb3c36abec520a4c896a66d} - \field{labelnamesource}{author} - \field{labeltitlesource}{title} - \field{abstract}{Stellite alloys have good wear resistance and maintain their strength up to 600°C, making them suitable for various industrial applications like cutting tools and combustion engine parts. This investigation was aimed at i) manufacturing new Stellite alloy blends using powder metallurgy and ii) mathematically mapping hardness, yield strength, ductility and impact energy of base and alloy blends. Linear, exponential, polynomial approximations and dimensional analyses were conducted in this semi-empirical mathematical modelling approach. Base alloy compositions similar to Stellite 1, 4, 6, 12, 20 and 190 were used in this investigation to form new alloys via blends. The microstructure was analysed using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and X-ray Diffraction (XRD). Mechanical performance of alloys was conducted using tensile, hardness and Charpy impact tests. MATLAB® coding was used for the development of property maps. This investigation indicates that hardness and yield strength can be linked to the wt.\% composition of carbon and tungsten using linear approximation with a maximum variance of 5\% and 20\%, respectively. Elongation and carbide fraction showed a non-linear relationship with alloy composition. Impact energy was linked with elongation through polynomial approximation. A dimensional analysis was developed by interlinking carbide fraction, hardness, yield strength, and elongation to impact energy.} - \field{issn}{2374-068X} - \field{journaltitle}{Advances in Materials and Processing Technologies} - \field{month}{6} - \field{note}{1 citations (Semantic Scholar/DOI) [2025-04-12] Publisher: Taylor \& Francis \_eprint: https://doi.org/10.1080/2374068X.2023.2220242} - \field{number}{0} - \field{title}{Mapping the mechanical properties of cobalt-based stellite alloys manufactured via blending} - \field{urlday}{13} - \field{urlmonth}{7} - \field{urlyear}{2024} - \field{volume}{0} - \field{year}{2023} - \field{urldateera}{ce} - \field{pages}{1\bibrangedash 30} - \range{pages}{30} - \verb{doi} - \verb 10.1080/2374068X.2023.2220242 - \endverb - \verb{urlraw} - \verb https://doi.org/10.1080/2374068X.2023.2220242 - \endverb - \verb{url} - \verb https://doi.org/10.1080/2374068X.2023.2220242 - \endverb - \keyw{Blending,Hiping,Mathematical model,Powder metallurgy,Stellite alloys,Structure-property relationships} - \endentry - \entry{bunchCorrosionGallingResistant1989}{inproceedings}{}{} - \name{author}{3}{}{% - {{hash=ff8de9c468efb7eab8b92e573d3949ed}{% - family={Bunch}, - familyi={B\bibinitperiod}, - given={P.\bibnamedelimi O.}, - giveni={P\bibinitperiod\bibinitdelim O\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=47f88033d1313a3ac56378baefb344e4}{% - family={Hartmann}, - familyi={H\bibinitperiod}, - given={M.\bibnamedelimi P.}, - giveni={M\bibinitperiod\bibinitdelim P\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=7f4198582fc42b8ddab60cd433790594}{% - family={Bednarowicz}, - familyi={B\bibinitperiod}, - given={T.\bibnamedelimi A.}, - giveni={T\bibinitperiod\bibinitdelim A\bibinitperiod}}}% - } - \list{language}{1}{% - {en}% - } - \list{publisher}{1}{% - {OnePetro}% - } - \strng{namehash}{b4088224b2a9ea87c42c7ab641ebe2de} - \strng{fullhash}{27ba512d074ac1ae4276e7a91ea23549} - \strng{fullhashraw}{27ba512d074ac1ae4276e7a91ea23549} - \strng{bibnamehash}{27ba512d074ac1ae4276e7a91ea23549} - \strng{authorbibnamehash}{27ba512d074ac1ae4276e7a91ea23549} - \strng{authornamehash}{b4088224b2a9ea87c42c7ab641ebe2de} - \strng{authorfullhash}{27ba512d074ac1ae4276e7a91ea23549} - \strng{authorfullhashraw}{27ba512d074ac1ae4276e7a91ea23549} - \field{sortinit}{7} - \field{sortinithash}{108d0be1b1bee9773a1173443802c0a3} - \field{labelnamesource}{author} - \field{labeltitlesource}{title} - \field{abstract}{ABSTRACT. Application of corrosion resistant hardfacing materials are required to maintain exceptional reliability for metal to metal sealing in high pressure gate valves used for offshore production wells. New hardfacing materials have been developed and tailored for use where defense against degradation effects of high temperature, high pressure, H2S, C02, free sulfur and brine environments is required. Using a plasma transferred arc (PTA) weld process, new hardfacings of Stellite cobalt base materials have been successfully applied to nickel base alloy substrates. These hardfacings provide exceptional corrosion resistance over previously used materials produced by spray and fuse as well as high velocity combustion spray (} - \field{month}{5} - \field{note}{1 citations (Semantic Scholar/DOI) [2025-04-12]} - \field{title}{Corrosion/{Galling} {Resistant} {Hardfacing} {Materials} for {Offshore} {Production} {Valves}} - \field{urlday}{1} - \field{urlmonth}{4} - \field{urlyear}{2025} - \field{year}{1989} - \field{urldateera}{ce} - \verb{doi} - \verb 10.4043/6070-MS - \endverb - \verb{urlraw} - \verb https://dx.doi.org/10.4043/6070-MS - \endverb - \verb{url} - \verb https://dx.doi.org/10.4043/6070-MS - \endverb - \endentry - \entry{ratiaComparisonSlidingWear2019}{article}{}{} - \name{author}{7}{}{% - {{hash=4d8d77bd60a2e1fd293e809631bc5a84}{% - family={Ratia}, - familyi={R\bibinitperiod}, - given={Vilma\bibnamedelima L.}, - giveni={V\bibinitperiod\bibinitdelim L\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=84a91dba5410e2e8f67915c4c17aea08}{% - family={Zhang}, - familyi={Z\bibinitperiod}, - given={Deen}, - giveni={D\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=f9e5a7fad20d40241ed0f25f05849207}{% - family={Carrington}, - familyi={C\bibinitperiod}, - given={Matthew\bibnamedelima J.}, - giveni={M\bibinitperiod\bibinitdelim J\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=a61a195bd0ed9f39c9d446f02d7b9592}{% - family={Daure}, - familyi={D\bibinitperiod}, - given={Jaimie\bibnamedelima L.}, - giveni={J\bibinitperiod\bibinitdelim L\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=d9e3c0caaa2d6903c488a2973cea1fd8}{% - family={McCartney}, - familyi={M\bibinitperiod}, - given={D.\bibnamedelimi Graham}, - giveni={D\bibinitperiod\bibinitdelim G\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=d69de7eb40c8f8c0c78825838cd1f8ee}{% - family={Shipway}, - familyi={S\bibinitperiod}, - given={Philip\bibnamedelima H.}, - giveni={P\bibinitperiod\bibinitdelim H\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=b150a22a65dc3516b89a2bd86a0e25ff}{% - family={Stewart}, - familyi={S\bibinitperiod}, - given={David\bibnamedelima A.}, - giveni={D\bibinitperiod\bibinitdelim A\bibinitperiod}}}% - } - \strng{namehash}{0f5fdf8e51bf5515e4025351773003d8} - \strng{fullhash}{2e0376be46be3b8d245d5ab5620f4ca2} - \strng{fullhashraw}{2e0376be46be3b8d245d5ab5620f4ca2} - \strng{bibnamehash}{2e0376be46be3b8d245d5ab5620f4ca2} - \strng{authorbibnamehash}{2e0376be46be3b8d245d5ab5620f4ca2} - \strng{authornamehash}{0f5fdf8e51bf5515e4025351773003d8} - \strng{authorfullhash}{2e0376be46be3b8d245d5ab5620f4ca2} - \strng{authorfullhashraw}{2e0376be46be3b8d245d5ab5620f4ca2} - \field{sortinit}{8} - \field{sortinithash}{a231b008ebf0ecbe0b4d96dcc159445f} - \field{labelnamesource}{author} - \field{labeltitlesource}{title} - \field{abstract}{Cobalt-based alloys such as Stellite 3 and Stellite 6 are widely used to protect stainless steel surfaces in primary circuit nuclear reactor applications where high resistance to wear and corrosion are required. In this study, self-mated sliding wear of Stellite 3 and Stellite 6 consolidated by hot isostatic pressing were compared. Tests were performed with a pin-on-disc apparatus enclosed in a water-submerged autoclave environment and wear was measured from room temperature up to 250 °C (a representative pressurized water reactor environment). Both alloys exhibit a microstructure of micron-sized carbides embedded in a cobalt-rich matrix. Stellite 3 (higher tungsten and carbon content) contains M7C3 and an eta (η) -carbide whereas Stellite 6 contains only M7C3. Furthermore, the former has a significantly higher carbide volume fraction and hardness than the latter. Both alloys show a significant increase in the wear rate as the temperature is increased but Stellite 3 has a higher wear resistance over the entire range; at 250 °C the wear rate of Stellite 6 is more than five times that of Stellite 3. There is only a minimal formation of a transfer layer on the sliding surfaces but electron backscatter diffraction on cross-sections through the wear scar revealed that wear causes partial transformation of the cobalt matrix from fcc to hcp in both alloys over the entire temperature range. It is proposed that the acceleration of wear with increasing temperature in the range studied is associated with a tribocorrosion mechanism and that the higher carbide fraction in Stellite 3 resulted in its reduced wear rate compared to Stellite 6.} - \field{issn}{0043-1648} - \field{journaltitle}{Wear} - \field{month}{4} - \field{note}{20 citations (Semantic Scholar/DOI) [2025-04-12]} - \field{series}{22nd {International} {Conference} on {Wear} of {Materials}} - \field{title}{Comparison of the sliding wear behaviour of self-mated {HIPed} {Stellite} 3 and {Stellite} 6 in a simulated {PWR} water environment} - \field{urlday}{30} - \field{urlmonth}{6} - \field{urlyear}{2024} - \field{volume}{426-427} - \field{year}{2019} - \field{urldateera}{ce} - \field{pages}{1222\bibrangedash 1232} - \range{pages}{11} - \verb{doi} - \verb 10.1016/j.wear.2019.01.116 - \endverb - \verb{urlraw} - \verb https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S004316481930211X - \endverb - \verb{url} - \verb https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S004316481930211X - \endverb - \keyw{Cobalt-based alloys,Electron backscatter diffraction,HIP,Nuclear,Stellite} - \endentry - \entry{zhangFrictionWearCharacterization2002}{article}{}{} - \name{author}{2}{}{% - {{hash=9ac5c6e1891a9d327b6cf9dce9924eaa}{% - family={Zhang}, - familyi={Z\bibinitperiod}, - given={K}, - giveni={K\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=cb8741204d7e12b6db11ee35f025c97c}{% - family={Battiston}, - familyi={B\bibinitperiod}, - given={L}, - giveni={L\bibinitperiod}}}% - } - \strng{namehash}{bf171f4e97c3179e4c0d9908cf319a1f} - \strng{fullhash}{bf171f4e97c3179e4c0d9908cf319a1f} - \strng{fullhashraw}{bf171f4e97c3179e4c0d9908cf319a1f} - \strng{bibnamehash}{bf171f4e97c3179e4c0d9908cf319a1f} - \strng{authorbibnamehash}{bf171f4e97c3179e4c0d9908cf319a1f} - \strng{authornamehash}{bf171f4e97c3179e4c0d9908cf319a1f} - \strng{authorfullhash}{bf171f4e97c3179e4c0d9908cf319a1f} - \strng{authorfullhashraw}{bf171f4e97c3179e4c0d9908cf319a1f} - \field{sortinit}{1} - \field{sortinithash}{4f6aaa89bab872aa0999fec09ff8e98a} - \field{labelnamesource}{author} - \field{labeltitlesource}{title} - \field{abstract}{A full-journal submerged bearing test rig was built to evaluate the friction and wear behavior of materials in zinc alloy baths. Some cobalt- and iron-based superalloys were tested using this rig at conditions similar to those of a continuous galvanizing operation (load and bath chemistry). Metallographic and chemical analyses were conducted on tested samples to characterize the wear. It was found that a commonly used cobalt-based material (Stellite \#6) not only suffered considerable wear but also reacted with zinc baths to form intermetallic compounds. Other cobalt- and iron-based superalloys appeared to have negligible reaction with the zinc baths in the short-term tests, but cracks developed in the sub-surface, suggesting that the materials mainly experienced surface fatigue wear. The commonly used cobalt-based superalloy mostly experienced abrasive wear.} - \field{issn}{0043-1648} - \field{journaltitle}{Wear} - \field{month}{2} - \field{note}{33 citations (Semantic Scholar/DOI) [2025-04-12]} - \field{number}{3} - \field{title}{Friction and wear characterization of some cobalt- and iron-based superalloys in zinc alloy baths} - \field{urlday}{1} - \field{urlmonth}{4} - \field{urlyear}{2025} - \field{volume}{252} - \field{year}{2002} - \field{urldateera}{ce} - \field{pages}{332\bibrangedash 344} - \range{pages}{13} - \verb{doi} - \verb 10.1016/S0043-1648(01)00889-4 - \endverb - \verb{urlraw} - \verb https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0043164801008894 - \endverb - \verb{url} - \verb https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0043164801008894 - \endverb - \keyw{Friction and wear,Galvanizing,Submerged hardware,Superalloys} - \endentry - \entry{ashworthMicrostructurePropertyRelationships1999}{article}{}{} - \name{author}{3}{}{% - {{hash=a0a9668f5a93080c8425a8cf80e9d0d2}{% - family={Ashworth}, - familyi={A\bibinitperiod}, - given={M.A.}, - giveni={M\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=27753a82b6390957cb920ec5052f0810}{% - family={Jacobs}, - familyi={J\bibinitperiod}, - given={M.H.}, - giveni={M\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=0e68382b25995f7a55c9b600def7c365}{% - family={Davies}, - familyi={D\bibinitperiod}, - given={S.}, - giveni={S\bibinitperiod}}}% - } - \list{language}{1}{% - {EN}% - } - \strng{namehash}{abac9b3a3bd887c0c8dedb4a4e169c92} - \strng{fullhash}{68dce5901af799f73fc399cf947f81b9} - \strng{fullhashraw}{68dce5901af799f73fc399cf947f81b9} - \strng{bibnamehash}{68dce5901af799f73fc399cf947f81b9} - \strng{authorbibnamehash}{68dce5901af799f73fc399cf947f81b9} - \strng{authornamehash}{abac9b3a3bd887c0c8dedb4a4e169c92} - \strng{authorfullhash}{68dce5901af799f73fc399cf947f81b9} - \strng{authorfullhashraw}{68dce5901af799f73fc399cf947f81b9} - \field{sortinit}{1} - \field{sortinithash}{4f6aaa89bab872aa0999fec09ff8e98a} - \field{labelnamesource}{author} - \field{labeltitlesource}{title} - \field{abstract}{In the present paper the microstructure and properties of a range of hipped Stellite powders are investigated, the basic aim of the study being to generate a materia/property database to facilitate alloy selection for potential applications involving net shape component manufacture. Particular attention is paid to the morphology, particle size distribution, and surface composition of the as atomised powders and their effect on subsequent consolidation. The consolidated powders are fully characterised in terms of microstructure and the composition and distribution of secondary phases. The effect of hipping temperature on the microstructure, hardness, and tensile properties of the powders are discussed in terms of the optimum processing temperature for the various alloys.} - \field{issn}{0032-5899} - \field{journaltitle}{Powder Metallurgy} - \field{month}{3} - \field{note}{23 citations (Semantic Scholar/DOI) [2025-04-12] Publisher: SAGE Publications} - \field{number}{3} - \field{title}{Microstructure and property relationships in hipped {Stellite} powders} - \field{urlday}{3} - \field{urlmonth}{4} - \field{urlyear}{2025} - \field{volume}{42} - \field{year}{1999} - \field{urldateera}{ce} - \field{pages}{243\bibrangedash 249} - \range{pages}{7} - \verb{doi} - \verb 10.1179/003258999665585 - \endverb - \verb{urlraw} - \verb https://journals.sagepub.com/action/showAbstract - \endverb - \verb{url} - \verb https://journals.sagepub.com/action/showAbstract - \endverb - \endentry - \entry{ferozhkhanMetallurgicalStudyStellite2017}{article}{}{} - \name{author}{3}{}{% - {{hash=bed071d3745587c303d1b4411281a295}{% - family={Ferozhkhan}, - familyi={F\bibinitperiod}, - given={Mohammed\bibnamedelima Mohaideen}, - giveni={M\bibinitperiod\bibinitdelim M\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=fdb6a42317e0e10a267ce7c918a63e11}{% - family={Kumar}, - familyi={K\bibinitperiod}, - given={Kottaimathan\bibnamedelima Ganesh}, - giveni={K\bibinitperiod\bibinitdelim G\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=250edfbd96cbc7ebd974dd11a2098198}{% - family={Ravibharath}, - familyi={R\bibinitperiod}, - given={Rajanbabu}, - giveni={R\bibinitperiod}}}% - } - \list{language}{1}{% - {en}% - } - \strng{namehash}{7a694c7ba4c57888494ddc3675c7d70c} - \strng{fullhash}{c63a5ee4b2edf1e71712795226de5b1a} - \strng{fullhashraw}{c63a5ee4b2edf1e71712795226de5b1a} - \strng{bibnamehash}{c63a5ee4b2edf1e71712795226de5b1a} - \strng{authorbibnamehash}{c63a5ee4b2edf1e71712795226de5b1a} - \strng{authornamehash}{7a694c7ba4c57888494ddc3675c7d70c} - \strng{authorfullhash}{c63a5ee4b2edf1e71712795226de5b1a} - \strng{authorfullhashraw}{c63a5ee4b2edf1e71712795226de5b1a} - \field{sortinit}{1} - \field{sortinithash}{4f6aaa89bab872aa0999fec09ff8e98a} - \field{labelnamesource}{author} - \field{labeltitlesource}{title} - \field{abstract}{309-16L stainless steel was deposited over base metal Grade 91 steel (9Cr–1Mo) as buffer layer by shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) and flux cored arc welding processes, and then, Stellite 6 (Co–Cr alloy) was coated on stainless steel buffer by SMAW, GTAW and plasma transferred arc welding processes. Stellite 6 coatings were characterized using optical microscope, Vickers hardness tester and optical emission spectrometer, respectively. The FCA deposit has less heat-affected zone and uniform hardness than SMA and GTA deposits. The buffer layer has reduced the formation of any surface cracks and delamination near the fusion zones. The microstructure of Stellite 6 consists of dendrites of Co solid solution and carbides secretion in the interdendrites of Co and Cr matrix. Electron-dispersive spectroscopy line scan has been conducted to analyse the impact of alloying elements in the fusion line and Stellite 6 deposits. It was observed that dilution of Fe in PTA-deposited Stellite 6 was lesser than SMA and GTA deposits and uniform hardness of 600–650 \$\${\textbackslash}hbox \{HV\}\_\{0.3\}\$\$was obtained from PTA deposit. The chemical analysis resulted in alloy composition of PTA deposit has nominal percentage in comparison with consumable composition while GTA and SMA deposits has high dilution of Fe and Ni.} - \field{issn}{2191-4281} - \field{journaltitle}{Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering} - \field{month}{5} - \field{note}{0 citations (Semantic Scholar/DOI) [2025-04-12]} - \field{number}{5} - \field{title}{Metallurgical {Study} of {Stellite} 6 {Cladding} on 309-{16L} {Stainless} {Steel}} - \field{urlday}{31} - \field{urlmonth}{3} - \field{urlyear}{2025} - \field{volume}{42} - \field{year}{2017} - \field{urldateera}{ce} - \field{pages}{2067\bibrangedash 2074} - \range{pages}{8} - \verb{doi} - \verb 10.1007/s13369-017-2457-7 - \endverb - \verb{urlraw} - \verb https://doi.org/10.1007/s13369-017-2457-7 - \endverb - \verb{url} - \verb https://doi.org/10.1007/s13369-017-2457-7 - \endverb - \keyw{Dilution,EDS,Hardfacing,Interdendrites,Stellite} - \endentry - \entry{pacquentinTemperatureInfluenceRepair2025}{article}{}{} - \name{author}{5}{}{% - {{hash=096b7ba62dd31bb3abb4c7daa2ba6477}{% - family={Pacquentin}, - familyi={P\bibinitperiod}, - given={Wilfried}, - giveni={W\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=9e420ee86aa957c365d57085e999996c}{% - family={Wident}, - familyi={W\bibinitperiod}, - given={Pierre}, - giveni={P\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=268ededdba463184d10a8f5532d5cf81}{% - family={Varlet}, - familyi={V\bibinitperiod}, - given={Jérôme}, - giveni={J\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=b24f3669f2a577f8062abf9d04e0e179}{% - family={Cailloux}, - familyi={C\bibinitperiod}, - given={Thomas}, - giveni={T\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=ba3f789128096170532622dc53c3bbd0}{% - family={Maskrot}, - familyi={M\bibinitperiod}, - given={Hicham}, - giveni={H\bibinitperiod}}}% - } - \strng{namehash}{f57606f1b71f32267dc7727ee385b008} - \strng{fullhash}{0cc41d1605707534d43f79ae97691cbc} - \strng{fullhashraw}{0cc41d1605707534d43f79ae97691cbc} - \strng{bibnamehash}{0cc41d1605707534d43f79ae97691cbc} - \strng{authorbibnamehash}{0cc41d1605707534d43f79ae97691cbc} - \strng{authornamehash}{f57606f1b71f32267dc7727ee385b008} - \strng{authorfullhash}{0cc41d1605707534d43f79ae97691cbc} - \strng{authorfullhashraw}{0cc41d1605707534d43f79ae97691cbc} - \field{sortinit}{2} - \field{sortinithash}{8b555b3791beccb63322c22f3320aa9a} - \field{labelnamesource}{author} - \field{labeltitlesource}{title} - \field{abstract}{Additive manufacturing (AM) is a proven time- and cost-effective method for repairing parts locally damaged after e.g. repetitive friction wear or corrosion. Repairing a hardfacing coating using AM technologies presents however several simultaneous challenges arising from the complex geometry and a high probability of crack formation due to process-induced stress. We address the repair of a cobalt-based Stellite™ 6 hardfacing coating on an AISI 316L substrate performed using Laser Powder Directed Energy Deposition (LP-DED) and investigate the influence of key process features and parameters. We describe our process which successfully prevents crack formation both during and after the repair, highlighting the design of the preliminary part machining phase, induction heating of an extended part volume during the laser repair phase and the optimal scanning strategy. Local characterization using non-destructive testing, Vickers hardness measurements and microstructural examinations by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) show an excellent metallurgical quality of the repair and its interface with the original part. In addition, we introduce an innovative process qualification test assessing the repair quality and innocuity, which is based on the global response to induced cracks and probes the absence of crack attraction by the repair (ACAR11ACAR stands for absence of crack attraction by the repair.). Here this ACAR test reveals a slight difference in mechanical behavior between the repair and the original coating which motivates further work to eventually make the repair imperceptible.} - \field{issn}{2666-3309} - \field{journaltitle}{Journal of Advanced Joining Processes} - \field{month}{6} - \field{title}{Temperature influence on the repair of a hardfacing coating using laser metal deposition and assessment of the repair innocuity} - \field{urlday}{31} - \field{urlmonth}{3} - \field{urlyear}{2025} - \field{volume}{11} - \field{year}{2025} - \field{urldateera}{ce} - \field{pages}{100284} - \range{pages}{1} - \verb{doi} - \verb 10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100284 - \endverb - \verb{urlraw} - \verb https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666330925000056 - \endverb - \verb{url} - \verb https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666330925000056 - \endverb - \keyw{Additive manufacturing,Direct laser deposition,Hardfacing coating,Mechanical characterization,Repair,Repair innocuity assessment} - \endentry - \entry{desaiEffectCarbideSize1984}{article}{}{} - \name{author}{4}{}{% - {{hash=fc05df304d9bc11398a5c124af37591d}{% - family={Desai}, - familyi={D\bibinitperiod}, - given={V.\bibnamedelimi M.}, - giveni={V\bibinitperiod\bibinitdelim M\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=ec550afc1e3aea4900fb58655a64f6da}{% - family={Rao}, - familyi={R\bibinitperiod}, - given={C.\bibnamedelimi M.}, - giveni={C\bibinitperiod\bibinitdelim M\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=33b6be2f67c7c521e0d9dd2e94cb03fa}{% - family={Kosel}, - familyi={K\bibinitperiod}, - given={T.\bibnamedelimi H.}, - giveni={T\bibinitperiod\bibinitdelim H\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=1ad7f5a75d8dc26e538ca7e4d233e622}{% - family={Fiore}, - familyi={F\bibinitperiod}, - given={N.\bibnamedelimi F.}, - giveni={N\bibinitperiod\bibinitdelim F\bibinitperiod}}}% - } - \strng{namehash}{aeae2b334e415789011cf05b2beda57d} - \strng{fullhash}{3e12109fb3ad3bbc6eba6a83ee61b7de} - \strng{fullhashraw}{3e12109fb3ad3bbc6eba6a83ee61b7de} - \strng{bibnamehash}{3e12109fb3ad3bbc6eba6a83ee61b7de} - \strng{authorbibnamehash}{3e12109fb3ad3bbc6eba6a83ee61b7de} - \strng{authornamehash}{aeae2b334e415789011cf05b2beda57d} - \strng{authorfullhash}{3e12109fb3ad3bbc6eba6a83ee61b7de} - \strng{authorfullhashraw}{3e12109fb3ad3bbc6eba6a83ee61b7de} - \field{sortinit}{2} - \field{sortinithash}{8b555b3791beccb63322c22f3320aa9a} - \field{labelnamesource}{author} - \field{labeltitlesource}{title} - \field{abstract}{A study of the effect of carbide size on the abrasion resistance of two cobalt-base powder metallurgy alloys, alloys 6 and 19, was conducted using low stress abrasion with a relatively hard abrasive, A12O3. Specimens of each alloy were produced with different carbide sizes but with a constant carbide volume fraction. The wear test results show a monotonie decrease in wear rate with increasing carbide size. Scanning electron microscopy of the worn surfaces and of wear debris particles shows that the primary material removal mechanism is micromachining. Small carbides provide little resistance to micromachining because of the fact that many of them are contained entirely in the volume of micromachining chips. The large carbides must be directly cut by the abrasive particles. Other less frequently observed material removal mechanisms included direct carbide pull-out and the formation of large pits in fine carbide specimens. These processes are considered secondary in the present work, but they may have greater importance in wear by relatively soft abrasives which do not cut chips from the carbide phase of these alloys. Some indication of this is provided by limited studies using a relatively soft abrasive, rounded quartz.} - \field{issn}{0043-1648} - \field{journaltitle}{Wear} - \field{month}{2} - \field{note}{59 citations (Semantic Scholar/DOI) [2025-04-12]} - \field{number}{1} - \field{title}{Effect of carbide size on the abrasion of cobalt-base powder metallurgy alloys} - \field{urlday}{17} - \field{urlmonth}{11} - \field{urlyear}{2024} - \field{volume}{94} - \field{year}{1984} - \field{urldateera}{ce} - \field{pages}{89\bibrangedash 101} - \range{pages}{13} - \verb{doi} - \verb 10.1016/0043-1648(84)90168-6 - \endverb - \verb{urlraw} - \verb https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0043164884901686 - \endverb - \verb{url} - \verb https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0043164884901686 - \endverb - \keyw{Cavitation,Cavitation equipment,Damage measurement,Instrumentation,Sodium} - \endentry - \entry{francCavitationErosion2005}{incollection}{}{} - \name{editor}{2}{}{% - {{hash=82466166f53e07ad9568dba9555563e7}{% - family={Franc}, - familyi={F\bibinitperiod}, - given={Jean-Pierre}, - giveni={J\bibinithyphendelim P\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=441eced1863753c712f0eaa788cbc3d5}{% - family={Michel}, - familyi={M\bibinitperiod}, - given={Jean-Marie}, - giveni={J\bibinithyphendelim M\bibinitperiod}}}% - } - \list{language}{1}{% - {en}% - } - \list{location}{1}{% - {Dordrecht}% - } - \list{publisher}{1}{% - {Springer Netherlands}% - } - \strng{namehash}{9ef3cd89643a1a5e288c68eb93b9390c} - \strng{fullhash}{9ef3cd89643a1a5e288c68eb93b9390c} - \strng{fullhashraw}{9ef3cd89643a1a5e288c68eb93b9390c} - \strng{bibnamehash}{9ef3cd89643a1a5e288c68eb93b9390c} - \strng{editorbibnamehash}{9ef3cd89643a1a5e288c68eb93b9390c} - \strng{editornamehash}{9ef3cd89643a1a5e288c68eb93b9390c} - \strng{editorfullhash}{9ef3cd89643a1a5e288c68eb93b9390c} - \strng{editorfullhashraw}{9ef3cd89643a1a5e288c68eb93b9390c} - \field{sortinit}{4} - \field{sortinithash}{9381316451d1b9788675a07e972a12a7} - \field{labelnamesource}{editor} - \field{labeltitlesource}{title} - \field{booktitle}{Fundamentals of {Cavitation}} - \field{isbn}{978-1-4020-2233-3} - \field{title}{Cavitation {Erosion}} - \field{urlday}{13} - \field{urlmonth}{4} - \field{urlyear}{2025} - \field{year}{2005} - \field{urldateera}{ce} - \field{pages}{265\bibrangedash 291} - \range{pages}{27} - \verb{doi} - \verb 10.1007/1-4020-2233-6_12 - \endverb - \verb{urlraw} - \verb https://doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-2233-6_12 - \endverb - \verb{url} - \verb https://doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-2233-6_12 - \endverb - \keyw{Acoustic Impedance,Adverse Pressure Gradient,Mass Loss Rate,Pressure Pulse,Solid Wall} - \endentry - \entry{romoCavitationHighvelocitySlurry2012}{article}{}{} - \name{author}{4}{}{% - {{hash=abd07783347fdc165942b01479e16afb}{% - family={Romo}, - familyi={R\bibinitperiod}, - given={S.A.}, - giveni={S\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=9c9837ed5fce5c7a1aeb233aa99aa04d}{% - family={Santa}, - familyi={S\bibinitperiod}, - given={J.F.}, - giveni={J\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=fecaae68172b53756247ca68af700ed9}{% - family={Giraldo}, - familyi={G\bibinitperiod}, - given={J.E.}, - giveni={J\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=467faf266d1206e4566fe6d0465b33f0}{% - family={Toro}, - familyi={T\bibinitperiod}, - given={A.}, - giveni={A\bibinitperiod}}}% - } - \list{language}{1}{% - {English}% - } - \strng{namehash}{285bcf9d2b83436d537b5e21b7fde046} - \strng{fullhash}{e0312588d226589c879f5d182ca350e9} - \strng{fullhashraw}{e0312588d226589c879f5d182ca350e9} - \strng{bibnamehash}{e0312588d226589c879f5d182ca350e9} - \strng{authorbibnamehash}{e0312588d226589c879f5d182ca350e9} - \strng{authornamehash}{285bcf9d2b83436d537b5e21b7fde046} - \strng{authorfullhash}{e0312588d226589c879f5d182ca350e9} - \strng{authorfullhashraw}{e0312588d226589c879f5d182ca350e9} - \field{sortinit}{4} - \field{sortinithash}{9381316451d1b9788675a07e972a12a7} - \field{labelnamesource}{author} - \field{labeltitlesource}{title} - \field{abstract}{The cavitation and slurry erosion resistances of Stellite 6 coatings and 13-4 stainless steel were compared in laboratory. The Cavitation Resistance (CR) was measured according to ASTM G32 standard and the Slurry Erosion Resistance (SER) was tested in a high-velocity erosion tester under several impact angles. The results showed that the coatings improved the CR 15 times when compared to bare stainless steel. The SER of the coatings was also higher for all the impingement angles tested, the highest erosion rate being observed at 45°. The main wear mechanisms were micro-cracking (cavitation tests), and micro-cutting and micro-ploughing (slurry erosion tests). © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.} - \field{issn}{0301679X (ISSN)} - \field{journaltitle}{Tribology International} - \field{note}{82 citations (Semantic Scholar/DOI) [2025-04-12]} - \field{title}{Cavitation and high-velocity slurry erosion resistance of welded {Stellite} 6 alloy} - \field{volume}{47} - \field{year}{2012} - \field{pages}{16\bibrangedash 24} - \range{pages}{9} - \verb{doi} - \verb 10.1016/j.triboint.2011.10.003 - \endverb - \verb{urlraw} - \verb https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84856240362&doi=10.1016%2fj.triboint.2011.10.003&partnerID=40&md5=77bc5b529937543083c683cc6f5d689d - \endverb - \verb{url} - \verb https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84856240362&doi=10.1016%2fj.triboint.2011.10.003&partnerID=40&md5=77bc5b529937543083c683cc6f5d689d - \endverb - \keyw{Cavitation,Cavitation corrosion,Cavitation erosion,Cavitation resistance,Cerium alloys,Chromate coatings,Erosion,Erosion rates,High velocity,Impact angles,Impact resistance,Impingement angle,Micro-cutting,Slurry erosion,Stainless steel,Stellite,Stellite 6,Stellite 6 alloy,Stellite 6 coating,Tribology,Wear mechanisms,alloy} - \endentry - \entry{gevariDirectIndirectThermal2020}{article}{}{} - \name{author}{5}{}{% - {{hash=93d9cff817608f96c206941face4c5d7}{% - family={Gevari}, - familyi={G\bibinitperiod}, - given={Moein\bibnamedelima Talebian}, - giveni={M\bibinitperiod\bibinitdelim T\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=e271948379fd6fee4bd30a4d576761b8}{% - family={Abbasiasl}, - familyi={A\bibinitperiod}, - given={Taher}, - giveni={T\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=67d0558f57dbf7548b5b43a80b85f47f}{% - family={Niazi}, - familyi={N\bibinitperiod}, - given={Soroush}, - giveni={S\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=efb87c095e41c6349ba97d939982e130}{% - family={Ghorbani}, - familyi={G\bibinitperiod}, - given={Morteza}, - giveni={M\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=311cf929c32c6c2ce5aa2728ae09ad47}{% - family={Koşar}, - familyi={K\bibinitperiod}, - given={Ali}, - giveni={A\bibinitperiod}}}% - } - \strng{namehash}{76843143b68c90c6ac5d9d854fd56c1f} - \strng{fullhash}{7e654139b427bf36f3a25a5848105f5b} - \strng{fullhashraw}{7e654139b427bf36f3a25a5848105f5b} - \strng{bibnamehash}{7e654139b427bf36f3a25a5848105f5b} - \strng{authorbibnamehash}{7e654139b427bf36f3a25a5848105f5b} - \strng{authornamehash}{76843143b68c90c6ac5d9d854fd56c1f} - \strng{authorfullhash}{7e654139b427bf36f3a25a5848105f5b} - \strng{authorfullhashraw}{7e654139b427bf36f3a25a5848105f5b} - \field{sortinit}{5} - \field{sortinithash}{20e9b4b0b173788c5dace24730f47d8c} - \field{labelnamesource}{author} - \field{labeltitlesource}{shorttitle} - \field{abstract}{The phase change phenomenon in fluids as a result of low local pressure under a critical value is known as cavitation. Acoustic wave propagation or hydrodynamic pressure drop of the working fluid are the main reasons for inception of this phenomenon. Considering the released energy from the collapsing cavitation bubbles as a reliable source has led to its implementation to different fields, namely, heat transfer, surface cleaning and fouling, water treatment, food industry, chemical reactions, energy harvesting. A considerable amount of energy in the mentioned industries is required for thermal applications. Cavitation could serve for minimizing the energy demand and optimizing the processes. Thus, the energy efficiency of the systems could be significantly enhanced. This review article focuses on the direct and indirect thermal applications of hydrodynamic and acoustic cavitation. Relevant studies with emerging applications are discussed, while developments in cavitation, which have given rise to thermal applications during the last decade, are also included in this review.} - \field{issn}{1359-4311} - \field{journaltitle}{Applied Thermal Engineering} - \field{month}{5} - \field{note}{84 citations (Semantic Scholar/DOI) [2025-04-13]} - \field{shorttitle}{Direct and indirect thermal applications of hydrodynamic and acoustic cavitation} - \field{title}{Direct and indirect thermal applications of hydrodynamic and acoustic cavitation: {A} review} - \field{urlday}{13} - \field{urlmonth}{4} - \field{urlyear}{2025} - \field{volume}{171} - \field{year}{2020} - \field{urldateera}{ce} - \field{pages}{115065} - \range{pages}{1} - \verb{doi} - \verb 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2020.115065 - \endverb - \verb{urlraw} - \verb https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S135943111937766X - \endverb - \verb{url} - \verb https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S135943111937766X - \endverb - \keyw{Acoustic cavitation,Food industry,Heat transfer enhancement,Hydrodynamic cavitation,Water treatment} - \endentry - \entry{shinEffectMolybdenumMicrostructure2003}{article}{}{} - \name{author}{5}{}{% - {{hash=11c1c63fde4778e27fd93d2389dd1d9f}{% - family={Shin}, - familyi={S\bibinitperiod}, - given={Jong-Choul}, - giveni={J\bibinithyphendelim C\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=4d7d3c5a5d25916fcbdacaec6e7b281c}{% - family={Doh}, - familyi={D\bibinitperiod}, - given={Jung-Man}, - giveni={J\bibinithyphendelim M\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=9257782113324f27de8d34043cd84f7b}{% - family={Yoon}, - familyi={Y\bibinitperiod}, - given={Jin-Kook}, - giveni={J\bibinithyphendelim K\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=f1733c8d49f956fedeb6a8c03ce455c9}{% - family={Lee}, - familyi={L\bibinitperiod}, - given={Dok-Yol}, - giveni={D\bibinithyphendelim Y\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=d2534382552f3c10ee00cd39f0979de1}{% - family={Kim}, - familyi={K\bibinitperiod}, - given={Jae-Soo}, - giveni={J\bibinithyphendelim S\bibinitperiod}}}% - } - \strng{namehash}{35defe2b8f7d338cdec33698baeff00a} - \strng{fullhash}{178cbc46d086767ebf3c6301cad009cf} - \strng{fullhashraw}{178cbc46d086767ebf3c6301cad009cf} - \strng{bibnamehash}{178cbc46d086767ebf3c6301cad009cf} - \strng{authorbibnamehash}{178cbc46d086767ebf3c6301cad009cf} - \strng{authornamehash}{35defe2b8f7d338cdec33698baeff00a} - \strng{authorfullhash}{178cbc46d086767ebf3c6301cad009cf} - \strng{authorfullhashraw}{178cbc46d086767ebf3c6301cad009cf} - \field{sortinit}{5} - \field{sortinithash}{20e9b4b0b173788c5dace24730f47d8c} - \field{labelnamesource}{author} - \field{labeltitlesource}{title} - \field{abstract}{The Stellite 6 hardfacing alloys with different Mo contents have been deposited on AISI 1045-carbon steel using a Plasma Transferred Arc (PTA) welding machine. The effect of Mo on the microstructures and wear resistance properties of the Stellite 6 hardfacing alloys were investigated using optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, electron probe microanalysis and X-ray diffraction. With an increase in Mo contents, the M23C6 and M6C type carbides were formed instead of Cr-rich M7C3 and M23C6 type carbides observed in the interdenritic region of the Mo-free Stellite 6 hardfacing alloy. The size of Cr-rich carbides in interdendritic region decreased, but that of M6C type carbide increased as well as the refinement of Co-rich dendrites. The volume fraction of Cr-rich carbides slightly increased, but that of M6C type carbide abruptly increased. This microstructural change was responsible for the improvement of the mechanical properties such as hardness and wear resistance of the Mo-modified Stellite 6 hardfacing alloy.} - \field{issn}{0257-8972} - \field{journaltitle}{Surface and Coatings Technology} - \field{month}{3} - \field{number}{2} - \field{title}{Effect of molybdenum on the microstructure and wear resistance of cobalt-base {Stellite} hardfacing alloys} - \field{urlday}{5} - \field{urlmonth}{3} - \field{urlyear}{2025} - \field{volume}{166} - \field{year}{2003} - \field{urldateera}{ce} - \field{pages}{117\bibrangedash 126} - \range{pages}{10} - \verb{doi} - \verb 10.1016/S0257-8972(02)00853-8 - \endverb - \verb{urlraw} - \verb https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0257897202008538 - \endverb - \verb{url} - \verb https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0257897202008538 - \endverb - \keyw{Co-base Stellite alloys,Microstructure and wear resistance,Molybdenum,PTA} - \endentry - \entry{ahmedSlidingWearBlended2021a}{article}{}{} - \name{author}{3}{}{% - {{hash=73be20d7f1a5cbb337df0ca58a8fa420}{% - family={Ahmed}, - familyi={A\bibinitperiod}, - given={R.}, - giveni={R\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=75bf7913ab7463c6e3734bec975046fc}{% - family={Villiers\bibnamedelima Lovelock}, - familyi={V\bibinitperiod\bibinitdelim L\bibinitperiod}, - given={H.\bibnamedelimi L.}, - giveni={H\bibinitperiod\bibinitdelim L\bibinitperiod}, - prefix={de}, - prefixi={d\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=0e68382b25995f7a55c9b600def7c365}{% - family={Davies}, - familyi={D\bibinitperiod}, - given={S.}, - giveni={S\bibinitperiod}}}% - } - \strng{namehash}{82fc6b0dd69b51d07006a5e8127c7a8f} - \strng{fullhash}{652318761812c14e2605b641664892df} - \strng{fullhashraw}{652318761812c14e2605b641664892df} - \strng{bibnamehash}{652318761812c14e2605b641664892df} - \strng{authorbibnamehash}{652318761812c14e2605b641664892df} - \strng{authornamehash}{82fc6b0dd69b51d07006a5e8127c7a8f} - \strng{authorfullhash}{652318761812c14e2605b641664892df} - \strng{authorfullhashraw}{652318761812c14e2605b641664892df} - \field{extraname}{3} - \field{sortinit}{5} - \field{sortinithash}{20e9b4b0b173788c5dace24730f47d8c} - \field{labelnamesource}{author} - \field{labeltitlesource}{title} - \field{abstract}{This investigation reports on the tribomechanical evaluations of a Co-based alloy obtained by the hot isostatic pressing (HIPing) of a blend of two standard gas atomized cobalt alloy powders. A HIPed blend of Stellite 6 and Stellite 20 was used to investigate the effect of varying the C, Cr, and W content simultaneously on the structure-property relationships. Microstructural evaluations involved scanning electron microscopy and x-ray diffraction. Experimental evaluations were conducted using hardness, impact, tensile, abrasive wear and sliding wear tests to develop an understanding of the mechanical and tribological performance of the alloys. Results are discussed in terms of the failure modes for the mechanical tests, and wear mechanisms for the tribological tests. This study indicates that powder blends can be used to design for a desired combination of mechanical strength and wear properties in these HIPed alloys. Specific relationships were observed between the alloy composition and carbide content, hardness, impact energy and wear resistance. There was a linear relationship between the weighted W- and C-content and the carbide fraction. The abrasive wear performance also showed a linear relationship with the weighted alloy composition. The pin-on-disc and ball-on-flat experiments revealed a more complex relationship between the alloy composition and the wear rate.} - \field{issn}{0043-1648} - \field{journaltitle}{Wear} - \field{month}{2} - \field{note}{18 citations (Semantic Scholar/DOI) [2025-04-12]} - \field{title}{Sliding wear of blended cobalt based alloys} - \field{urlday}{13} - \field{urlmonth}{7} - \field{urlyear}{2024} - \field{volume}{466-467} - \field{year}{2021} - \field{urldateera}{ce} - \field{pages}{203533} - \range{pages}{1} - \verb{doi} - \verb 10.1016/j.wear.2020.203533 - \endverb - \verb{urlraw} - \verb https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0043164820309923 - \endverb - \verb{url} - \verb https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0043164820309923 - \endverb - \keyw{Blending,HIPing,Hardness,Powder metallurgy,Sliding wear,Stellite alloy} - \endentry - \entry{crookCobaltbaseAlloysResist1994}{article}{}{} - \name{author}{1}{}{% - {{hash=16985215fbfc4124567154cd4ca61487}{% - family={Crook}, - familyi={C\bibinitperiod}, - given={P}, - giveni={P\bibinitperiod}}}% - } - \strng{namehash}{16985215fbfc4124567154cd4ca61487} - \strng{fullhash}{16985215fbfc4124567154cd4ca61487} - \strng{fullhashraw}{16985215fbfc4124567154cd4ca61487} - \strng{bibnamehash}{16985215fbfc4124567154cd4ca61487} - \strng{authorbibnamehash}{16985215fbfc4124567154cd4ca61487} - \strng{authornamehash}{16985215fbfc4124567154cd4ca61487} - \strng{authorfullhash}{16985215fbfc4124567154cd4ca61487} - \strng{authorfullhashraw}{16985215fbfc4124567154cd4ca61487} - \field{sortinit}{5} - \field{sortinithash}{20e9b4b0b173788c5dace24730f47d8c} - \field{labelnamesource}{author} - \field{labeltitlesource}{title} - \field{issn}{0882-7958} - \field{journaltitle}{Cobalt-base alloys resist wear, corrosion, and heat} - \field{note}{Place: Materials Park, OH Publisher: ASM International} - \field{number}{4} - \field{title}{Cobalt-base alloys resist wear, corrosion, and heat} - \field{volume}{145} - \field{year}{1994} - \field{pages}{27\bibrangedash 30} - \range{pages}{4} - \endentry - \entry{huangMicrostructureEvolutionMartensite2023}{article}{}{} - \name{author}{6}{}{% - {{hash=55328195d8b2c0f90f11e12f5ddb7d65}{% - family={Huang}, - familyi={H\bibinitperiod}, - given={Zonglian}, - giveni={Z\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=2938deb5048323c6e1bfdd80975d5b28}{% - family={Wang}, - familyi={W\bibinitperiod}, - given={Bo}, - giveni={B\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=0138deaf332692ced30d823b9cebc488}{% - family={Liu}, - familyi={L\bibinitperiod}, - given={Fei}, - giveni={F\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=92c4cc87ddf9f0a5abb5ff8d5b8878d4}{% - family={Song}, - familyi={S\bibinitperiod}, - given={Min}, - giveni={M\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=971be18e8809118d44c885580820c916}{% - family={Ni}, - familyi={N\bibinitperiod}, - given={Song}, - giveni={S\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=eb96d2754cddae273dd482f087734e31}{% - family={Liu}, - familyi={L\bibinitperiod}, - given={Shaojun}, - giveni={S\bibinitperiod}}}% - } - \strng{namehash}{61779e4ce456f415f5dc118db21bed83} - \strng{fullhash}{8ca9ebea09cf1f645c339306001d45ac} - \strng{fullhashraw}{8ca9ebea09cf1f645c339306001d45ac} - \strng{bibnamehash}{8ca9ebea09cf1f645c339306001d45ac} - \strng{authorbibnamehash}{8ca9ebea09cf1f645c339306001d45ac} - \strng{authornamehash}{61779e4ce456f415f5dc118db21bed83} - \strng{authorfullhash}{8ca9ebea09cf1f645c339306001d45ac} - \strng{authorfullhashraw}{8ca9ebea09cf1f645c339306001d45ac} - \field{sortinit}{5} - \field{sortinithash}{20e9b4b0b173788c5dace24730f47d8c} - \field{labelnamesource}{author} - \field{labeltitlesource}{title} - \field{abstract}{The influence of laser energy density and heat treatment on the microstructure and properties of Co-Cr-Mo-W alloys fabricated by selective laser melting (SLM) are investigated symmetrically. When the laser power, the scanning speed, and the scanning space are set as 160 W, 400 mm/s, and 0.07 mm, respectively, the SLM-ed Co-Cr-Mo-W alloys display high strength and good ductility simultaneously. The precipitates ranging from nano- to macro- scale are finely distributed in SLM-ed CoCr alloys grains and/or along the grain boundaries in the heat treated alloys. Co-Cr-Mo-W alloys with an excellent combination of strength and ductility can be achieved by tailoring the microstructure and morphology of SLM-ed alloys during the heat treatment. The tensile strength, yield strength, and elongation are 1221.38 ± 10 MPa, 778.81 ± 12 MPa, and 17.2 ± 0.67\%, respectively.} - \field{issn}{0263-4368} - \field{journaltitle}{International Journal of Refractory Metals and Hard Materials} - \field{month}{6} - \field{title}{Microstructure evolution, martensite transformation and mechanical properties of heat treated {Co}-{Cr}-{Mo}-{W} alloys by selective laser melting} - \field{urlday}{13} - \field{urlmonth}{4} - \field{urlyear}{2025} - \field{volume}{113} - \field{year}{2023} - \field{urldateera}{ce} - \field{pages}{106170} - \range{pages}{1} - \verb{doi} - \verb 10.1016/j.ijrmhm.2023.106170 - \endverb - \verb{urlraw} - \verb https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0263436823000707 - \endverb - \verb{url} - \verb https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0263436823000707 - \endverb - \keyw{Co–Cr–Mo-W alloys,Heat treatment,Martensite phase transformation,Mechanical properties,Selective laser melting} - \endentry - \entry{tawancyFccHcpTransformation1986}{article}{}{} - \name{author}{3}{}{% - {{hash=f3547527506994c69c774b2c0d77ac73}{% - family={Tawancy}, - familyi={T\bibinitperiod}, - given={H.\bibnamedelimi M.}, - giveni={H\bibinitperiod\bibinitdelim M\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=f7d566a34064f3d0ccab33dde7a34069}{% - family={Ishwar}, - familyi={I\bibinitperiod}, - given={V.\bibnamedelimi R.}, - giveni={V\bibinitperiod\bibinitdelim R\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=6f964da88776c95344b60d3d9b6241fa}{% - family={Lewis}, - familyi={L\bibinitperiod}, - given={B.\bibnamedelimi E.}, - giveni={B\bibinitperiod\bibinitdelim E\bibinitperiod}}}% - } - \list{language}{1}{% - {en}% - } - \strng{namehash}{4de94c11cde2eac1de960723e9eac321} - \strng{fullhash}{b41586e8f4d7f9d36d48a78941a8c3b5} - \strng{fullhashraw}{b41586e8f4d7f9d36d48a78941a8c3b5} - \strng{bibnamehash}{b41586e8f4d7f9d36d48a78941a8c3b5} - \strng{authorbibnamehash}{b41586e8f4d7f9d36d48a78941a8c3b5} - \strng{authornamehash}{4de94c11cde2eac1de960723e9eac321} - \strng{authorfullhash}{b41586e8f4d7f9d36d48a78941a8c3b5} - \strng{authorfullhashraw}{b41586e8f4d7f9d36d48a78941a8c3b5} - \field{sortinit}{5} - \field{sortinithash}{20e9b4b0b173788c5dace24730f47d8c} - \field{labelnamesource}{author} - \field{labeltitlesource}{title} - \field{issn}{1573-4811} - \field{journaltitle}{Journal of Materials Science Letters} - \field{month}{3} - \field{note}{33 citations (Semantic Scholar/DOI) [2025-04-13]} - \field{number}{3} - \field{title}{On the fcc → hcp transformation in a cobalt-base superalloy ({Haynes} alloy {No}. 25)} - \field{urlday}{13} - \field{urlmonth}{4} - \field{urlyear}{2025} - \field{volume}{5} - \field{year}{1986} - \field{urldateera}{ce} - \field{pages}{337\bibrangedash 341} - \range{pages}{5} - \verb{doi} - \verb 10.1007/BF01748098 - \endverb - \verb{urlraw} - \verb https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01748098 - \endverb - \verb{url} - \verb https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01748098 - \endverb - \keyw{Haynes Alloy,Polymer,Polymers} - \endentry - \entry{yuComparisonTriboMechanicalProperties2007}{article}{}{} - \name{author}{3}{}{% - {{hash=f46cff6a47143fdbd36ae8842919e073}{% - family={Yu}, - familyi={Y\bibinitperiod}, - given={H.}, - giveni={H\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=73be20d7f1a5cbb337df0ca58a8fa420}{% - family={Ahmed}, - familyi={A\bibinitperiod}, - given={R.}, - giveni={R\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=39fbce992265c4dd42ff7cb6ab804ded}{% - family={Villiers\bibnamedelima Lovelock}, - familyi={V\bibinitperiod\bibinitdelim L\bibinitperiod}, - given={H.}, - giveni={H\bibinitperiod}, - prefix={de}, - prefixi={d\bibinitperiod}}}% - } - \strng{namehash}{56581c67a86bce08f334a1ace4c9fccb} - \strng{fullhash}{8e67a0a25c7114030e7e739ed034990b} - \strng{fullhashraw}{8e67a0a25c7114030e7e739ed034990b} - \strng{bibnamehash}{8e67a0a25c7114030e7e739ed034990b} - \strng{authorbibnamehash}{8e67a0a25c7114030e7e739ed034990b} - \strng{authornamehash}{56581c67a86bce08f334a1ace4c9fccb} - \strng{authorfullhash}{8e67a0a25c7114030e7e739ed034990b} - \strng{authorfullhashraw}{8e67a0a25c7114030e7e739ed034990b} - \field{extraname}{1} - \field{sortinit}{5} - \field{sortinithash}{20e9b4b0b173788c5dace24730f47d8c} - \field{labelnamesource}{author} - \field{labeltitlesource}{title} - \field{abstract}{This paper aims to compare the tribo-mechanical properties and structure–property relationships of a wear resistant cobalt-based alloy produced via two different manufacturing routes, namely sand casting and powder consolidation by hot isostatic pressing (HIPing). The alloy had a nominal wt \% composition of Co–33Cr–17.5W–2.5C, which is similar to the composition of commercially available Stellite 20 alloy. The high tungsten and carbon contents provide resistance to severe abrasive and sliding wear. However, the coarse carbide structure of the cast alloy also gives rise to brittleness. Hence this research was conducted to comprehend if the carbide refinement and corresponding changes in the microstructure, caused by changing the processing route to HIPing, could provide additional merits in the tribo-mechanical performance of this alloy. The HIPed alloy possessed a much finer microstructure than the cast alloy. Both alloys had similar hardness, but the impact resistance of the HIPed alloy was an order of magnitude higher than the cast counterpart. Despite similar abrasive and sliding wear resistance of both alloys, their main wear mechanisms were different due to their different carbide morphologies. Brittle fracture of the carbides and ploughing of the matrix were the main wear mechanisms for the cast alloy, whereas ploughing and carbide pullout were the dominant wear mechanisms for the HIPed alloy. The HIPed alloy showed significant improvement in contact fatigue performance, indicating its superior impact and fatigue resistance without compromising the hardness and sliding∕abrasive wear resistance, which makes it suitable for relatively higher stress applications.} - \field{issn}{0742-4787} - \field{journaltitle}{Journal of Tribology} - \field{month}{1} - \field{note}{37 citations (Semantic Scholar/DOI) [2025-04-12]} - \field{number}{3} - \field{title}{A {Comparison} of the {Tribo}-{Mechanical} {Properties} of a {Wear} {Resistant} {Cobalt}-{Based} {Alloy} {Produced} by {Different} {Manufacturing} {Processes}} - \field{urlday}{17} - \field{urlmonth}{11} - \field{urlyear}{2024} - \field{volume}{129} - \field{year}{2007} - \field{urldateera}{ce} - \field{pages}{586\bibrangedash 594} - \range{pages}{9} - \verb{doi} - \verb 10.1115/1.2736450 - \endverb - \verb{urlraw} - \verb https://doi.org/10.1115/1.2736450 - \endverb - \verb{url} - \verb https://doi.org/10.1115/1.2736450 - \endverb - \endentry - \entry{stoicaInfluenceHeattreatmentSliding2005}{article}{}{} - \name{author}{3}{}{% - {{hash=9ee308ed1264406c99dc3dc19fc74bbc}{% - family={Stoica}, - familyi={S\bibinitperiod}, - given={V.}, - giveni={V\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=73be20d7f1a5cbb337df0ca58a8fa420}{% - family={Ahmed}, - familyi={A\bibinitperiod}, - given={R.}, - giveni={R\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=396db0229b4cd75917372e6b8a4c12ee}{% - family={Itsukaichi}, - familyi={I\bibinitperiod}, - given={T.}, - giveni={T\bibinitperiod}}}% - } - \list{language}{1}{% - {English}% - } - \strng{namehash}{1dad3e925506f0bfcbc611fb083a4a04} - \strng{fullhash}{09c4b7a69ffaf05661ccd1c9f30d41c3} - \strng{fullhashraw}{09c4b7a69ffaf05661ccd1c9f30d41c3} - \strng{bibnamehash}{09c4b7a69ffaf05661ccd1c9f30d41c3} - \strng{authorbibnamehash}{09c4b7a69ffaf05661ccd1c9f30d41c3} - \strng{authornamehash}{1dad3e925506f0bfcbc611fb083a4a04} - \strng{authorfullhash}{09c4b7a69ffaf05661ccd1c9f30d41c3} - \strng{authorfullhashraw}{09c4b7a69ffaf05661ccd1c9f30d41c3} - \field{sortinit}{5} - \field{sortinithash}{20e9b4b0b173788c5dace24730f47d8c} - \field{labelnamesource}{author} - \field{labeltitlesource}{title} - \field{abstract}{Functionally graded WC-NiCrBSi coatings were thermally sprayed using a High Velocity Oxy-Fuel (JP5000) system and heat-treated at 1200 °C in argon environment. The relative performance of the as-sprayed and heat-treated coatings was investigated in sliding wear under different tribological conditions of contact stress, and test couple configuration, using a high frequency reciprocating ball on plate rig. Test results are discussed with the help of microstructural evaluations and mechanical properties measurements. Results indicate that by heat-treating the coatings at a temperature of 1200 °C, it is possible to achieve higher wear resistance, both in terms of coating wear, as well as the total wear of the test couples. This was attributed to the improvements in the coating microstructure during the heat-treatment, which resulted in an improvement in coating's mechanical properties through the formation of hard phases, elimination of brittle W2C and W, and the establishment of metallurgical bonding within the coating microstructure. © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.} - \field{issn}{02578972 (ISSN)} - \field{journaltitle}{Surface and Coatings Technology} - \field{note}{41 citations (Semantic Scholar/DOI) [2025-04-12]} - \field{number}{1} - \field{title}{Influence of heat-treatment on the sliding wear of thermal spray cermet coatings} - \field{volume}{199} - \field{year}{2005} - \field{pages}{7\bibrangedash 21} - \range{pages}{15} - \verb{doi} - \verb 10.1016/j.surfcoat.2005.03.026 - \endverb - \verb{urlraw} - \verb https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-21844464044&doi=10.1016%2fj.surfcoat.2005.03.026&partnerID=40&md5=6ad736723e828d39edf4a37c5975d2dc - \endverb - \verb{url} - \verb https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-21844464044&doi=10.1016%2fj.surfcoat.2005.03.026&partnerID=40&md5=6ad736723e828d39edf4a37c5975d2dc - \endverb - \keyw{Bonding,Brittleness,Cermets,Coating microstructure,Frequencies,Functionally graded materials,Heat treatment,Heat-treated coatings,Heat-treatment,High Velocity Oxy-Fuel,Mechanical properties,Microstructure,Nickel compounds,Phase composition,Sliding wear,Sprayed coatings,Thermal spray coatings,Tribology,Tungsten compounds,Wear of materials,heat treatment,sliding wear} - \endentry - \entry{ahmedInfluenceReHIPingStructure2013}{article}{}{} - \name{author}{4}{}{% - {{hash=73be20d7f1a5cbb337df0ca58a8fa420}{% - family={Ahmed}, - familyi={A\bibinitperiod}, - given={R.}, - giveni={R\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=75bf7913ab7463c6e3734bec975046fc}{% - family={Villiers\bibnamedelima Lovelock}, - familyi={V\bibinitperiod\bibinitdelim L\bibinitperiod}, - given={H.\bibnamedelimi L.}, - giveni={H\bibinitperiod\bibinitdelim L\bibinitperiod}, - prefix={de}, - prefixi={d\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=0e68382b25995f7a55c9b600def7c365}{% - family={Davies}, - familyi={D\bibinitperiod}, - given={S.}, - giveni={S\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=1c8f35a67217a8f6cbd1f8d3edb797b0}{% - family={Faisal}, - familyi={F\bibinitperiod}, - given={N.\bibnamedelimi H.}, - giveni={N\bibinitperiod\bibinitdelim H\bibinitperiod}}}% - } - \strng{namehash}{82fc6b0dd69b51d07006a5e8127c7a8f} - \strng{fullhash}{e70fdd408b4a5e9730bd0722565b8e34} - \strng{fullhashraw}{e70fdd408b4a5e9730bd0722565b8e34} - \strng{bibnamehash}{e70fdd408b4a5e9730bd0722565b8e34} - \strng{authorbibnamehash}{e70fdd408b4a5e9730bd0722565b8e34} - \strng{authornamehash}{82fc6b0dd69b51d07006a5e8127c7a8f} - \strng{authorfullhash}{e70fdd408b4a5e9730bd0722565b8e34} - \strng{authorfullhashraw}{e70fdd408b4a5e9730bd0722565b8e34} - \field{extraname}{4} - \field{sortinit}{5} - \field{sortinithash}{20e9b4b0b173788c5dace24730f47d8c} - \field{labelnamesource}{author} - \field{labeltitlesource}{title} - \field{abstract}{HIP-consolidation (Hot Isostatic Pressing or HIPing) of cobalt-based Stellite alloys offers significant technological advantages for components operating in aggressive wear environments. The aim of this investigation was to ascertain the effect of re-HIPing on the HIPed alloy properties for Stellite 4, 6 and 20 alloys. Structure–property relationships are discussed on the basis of microstructural and tribo-mechanical evaluations. Re-HIPing results in coarsening of carbides and solid solution strengthening of the matrix. The average indentation modulus improved, as did the average hardness at micro- and nano-scales. Re-HIPing showed improvement in wear properties the extent of which was dependent on alloy composition.} - \field{issn}{0301-679X} - \field{journaltitle}{Tribology International} - \field{month}{1} - \field{note}{38 citations (Semantic Scholar/DOI) [2025-04-12]} - \field{title}{Influence of {Re}-{HIPing} on the structure–property relationships of cobalt-based alloys} - \field{urlday}{30} - \field{urlmonth}{6} - \field{urlyear}{2024} - \field{volume}{57} - \field{year}{2013} - \field{urldateera}{ce} - \field{pages}{8\bibrangedash 21} - \range{pages}{14} - \verb{doi} - \verb 10.1016/j.triboint.2012.06.025 - \endverb - \verb{urlraw} - \verb https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301679X12002241 - \endverb - \verb{url} - \verb https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301679X12002241 - \endverb - \keyw{Abrasive wear,Cobalt based alloys,HIPing and Re-HIPing,Stellite 4,6,20,alloys} - \endentry - \entry{yuInfluenceManufacturingProcess2008}{article}{}{} - \name{author}{4}{}{% - {{hash=f46cff6a47143fdbd36ae8842919e073}{% - family={Yu}, - familyi={Y\bibinitperiod}, - given={H.}, - giveni={H\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=73be20d7f1a5cbb337df0ca58a8fa420}{% - family={Ahmed}, - familyi={A\bibinitperiod}, - given={R.}, - giveni={R\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=720a4573d41f2302c51d8dfc20eb7025}{% - family={Lovelock}, - familyi={L\bibinitperiod}, - given={H.\bibnamedelimi de\bibnamedelima Villiers}, - giveni={H\bibinitperiod\bibinitdelim d\bibinitperiod\bibinitdelim V\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=0e68382b25995f7a55c9b600def7c365}{% - family={Davies}, - familyi={D\bibinitperiod}, - given={S.}, - giveni={S\bibinitperiod}}}% - } - \strng{namehash}{56581c67a86bce08f334a1ace4c9fccb} - \strng{fullhash}{57ca415fdcbe0d531a76658a78b7a3d4} - \strng{fullhashraw}{57ca415fdcbe0d531a76658a78b7a3d4} - \strng{bibnamehash}{57ca415fdcbe0d531a76658a78b7a3d4} - \strng{authorbibnamehash}{57ca415fdcbe0d531a76658a78b7a3d4} - \strng{authornamehash}{56581c67a86bce08f334a1ace4c9fccb} - \strng{authorfullhash}{57ca415fdcbe0d531a76658a78b7a3d4} - \strng{authorfullhashraw}{57ca415fdcbe0d531a76658a78b7a3d4} - \field{extraname}{2} - \field{sortinit}{5} - \field{sortinithash}{20e9b4b0b173788c5dace24730f47d8c} - \field{labelnamesource}{author} - \field{labeltitlesource}{title} - \field{abstract}{Manufacturing process routes of materials can be adapted to manipulate their microstructure and hence their tribological performance. As industrial demands push the applications of tribological materials to harsher environments of higher stress, starved lubrication, and improved life performance, manufacturing processes can be tailored to optimize their use in particular engineering applications. The aim of this paper was therefore to comprehend the structure-property relationships of a wear resistant cobalt-based alloy (Stellite 6) produced from two different processing routes of powder consolidated hot isostatic pressing (HIPing) and casting. This alloy had a nominal wt \% composition of Co–28Cr–4.5W–1C, which is commonly used in wear related applications in harsh tribological environments. However, the coarse carbide structure of the cast alloy results in higher brittleness and lower toughness. Hence this research was conducted to comprehend if carbide refinement, caused by changing the processing route to HIPing, could improve the tribomechanical performance of this alloy. Microstructural and tribomechanical evaluations, which involved hardness, impact toughness, abrasive wear, sliding wear, and contact fatigue performance tests, indicated that despite the similar abrasive and sliding wear resistance of both alloys, the HIPed alloy exhibited an improved contact fatigue and impact toughness performance in comparison to the cast counterpart. This difference in behavior is discussed in terms of the structure-property relationships. Results of this research indicated that the HIPing process could provide additional impact and fatigue resistance to this alloy without compromising the hardness and the abrasive/sliding wear resistance, which makes the HIPed alloy suitable for relatively higher stress applications. Results are also compared with a previously reported investigation of the Stellite 20 alloy, which had a much higher carbide content in comparison to the Stellite 6 alloy, caused by the variation in the content of alloying elements. These results indicated that the fatigue resistance did not follow the expected trend of the improvement in impact toughness. In terms of the design process, the combination of hardness, toughness, and carbide content show a complex interdependency, where a 40\% reduction in the average hardness and 60\% reduction in carbide content had a more dominating effect on the contact fatigue resistance when compared with an order of magnitude improvement in the impact toughness of the HIPed Stellite 6 alloy.} - \field{issn}{0742-4787} - \field{journaltitle}{Journal of Tribology} - \field{month}{12} - \field{note}{46 citations (Semantic Scholar/DOI) [2025-04-12]} - \field{number}{011601} - \field{title}{Influence of {Manufacturing} {Process} and {Alloying} {Element} {Content} on the {Tribomechanical} {Properties} of {Cobalt}-{Based} {Alloys}} - \field{urlday}{13} - \field{urlmonth}{7} - \field{urlyear}{2024} - \field{volume}{131} - \field{year}{2008} - \field{urldateera}{ce} - \verb{doi} - \verb 10.1115/1.2991122 - \endverb - \verb{urlraw} - \verb https://doi.org/10.1115/1.2991122 - \endverb - \verb{url} - \verb https://doi.org/10.1115/1.2991122 - \endverb - \endentry - \entry{szalaEffectNitrogenIon2021}{article}{}{} - \name{author}{6}{}{% - {{hash=26ecda2187f0e2b702a2497a5dc3f27d}{% - family={Szala}, - familyi={S\bibinitperiod}, - given={M.}, - giveni={M\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=b1f8638f62fc396f39212102aa9a7be4}{% - family={Chocyk}, - familyi={C\bibinitperiod}, - given={D.}, - giveni={D\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=fa359615394426dff04c6f196de50a92}{% - family={Skic}, - familyi={S\bibinitperiod}, - given={A.}, - giveni={A\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=735ac71614372e54c2c5b12c4a8b2037}{% - family={Kamiński}, - familyi={K\bibinitperiod}, - given={M.}, - giveni={M\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=80f5de14d028c35ed21c52a0993eb44e}{% - family={Macek}, - familyi={M\bibinitperiod}, - given={W.}, - giveni={W\bibinitperiod}}}% - {{hash=2458b153bc1351893a163117b0b687eb}{% - family={Turek}, - familyi={T\bibinitperiod}, - given={M.}, - giveni={M\bibinitperiod}}}% - } - \list{language}{1}{% - {English}% - } - \strng{namehash}{0c580510ffd19c48fb276fd9bcbd3cc8} - \strng{fullhash}{ed8bfd0d39c94dcd76e642641bd4b638} - \strng{fullhashraw}{ed8bfd0d39c94dcd76e642641bd4b638} - \strng{bibnamehash}{ed8bfd0d39c94dcd76e642641bd4b638} - \strng{authorbibnamehash}{ed8bfd0d39c94dcd76e642641bd4b638} - \strng{authornamehash}{0c580510ffd19c48fb276fd9bcbd3cc8} - \strng{authorfullhash}{ed8bfd0d39c94dcd76e642641bd4b638} - \strng{authorfullhashraw}{ed8bfd0d39c94dcd76e642641bd4b638} - \field{sortinit}{5} - \field{sortinithash}{20e9b4b0b173788c5dace24730f47d8c} - \field{labelnamesource}{author} - \field{labeltitlesource}{title} - \field{abstract}{From the wide range of engineering materials traditional Stellite 6 (cobalt alloy) exhibits excellent resistance to cavitation erosion (CE). Nonetheless, the influence of ion implantation of cobalt alloys on the CE behaviour has not been completely clarified by the literature. Thus, this work investigates the effect of nitrogen ion implantation (NII) of HIPed Stellite 6 on the improvement of resistance to CE. Finally, the cobalt-rich matrix phase transformations due to both NII and cavitation load were studied. The CE resistance of stellites ion-implanted by 120 keV N+ ions two fluences: 5*1016 cm-2 and 1*1017 cm-2 were comparatively analysed with the unimplanted stellite and AISI 304 stainless steel. CE tests were conducted according to ASTM G32 with stationary specimen method. Erosion rate curves and mean depth of erosion confirm that the nitrogen-implanted HIPed Stellite 6 two times exceeds the resistance to CE than unimplanted stellite, and has almost ten times higher CE reference than stainless steel. The X-ray diffraction (XRD) confirms that NII of HIPed Stellite 6 favours transformation of the "(hcp) to (fcc) structure. Unimplanted stellite "-rich matrix is less prone to plastic deformation than and consequently, increase of phase effectively holds carbides in cobalt matrix and prevents Cr7C3 debonding. This phenomenon elongates three times the CE incubation stage, slows erosion rate and mitigates the material loss. Metastable structure formed by ion implantation consumes the cavitation load for work-hardening and ! " martensitic transformation. In further CE stages, phases transform as for unimplanted alloy namely, the cavitation-inducted recovery process, removal of strain, dislocations resulting in increase of phase. The CE mechanism was investigated using a surface profilometer, atomic force microscopy, SEM-EDS and XRD. HIPed Stellite 6 wear behaviour relies on the plastic deformation of cobalt matrix, starting at Cr7C3/matrix interfaces. Once the Cr7C3 particles lose from the matrix restrain, they debond from matrix and are removed from the material. Carbides detachment creates cavitation pits which initiate cracks propagation through cobalt matrix, that leads to loss of matrix phase and as a result the CE proceeds with a detachment of massive chunk of materials. © 2021 by the authors.} - \field{issn}{19961944 (ISSN)} - \field{journaltitle}{Materials} - \field{note}{Publisher: MDPI AG} - \field{number}{9} - \field{title}{Effect of nitrogen ion implantation on the cavitation erosion resistance and cobalt-based solid solution phase transformations of {HIPed} stellite 6} - \field{volume}{14} - \field{year}{2021} - \verb{doi} - \verb 10.3390/ma14092324 - \endverb - \verb{urlraw} - \verb https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85105941706&doi=10.3390%2fma14092324&partnerID=40&md5=4c846be7d06977d42697c88c326e5923 - \endverb - \verb{url} - \verb https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85105941706&doi=10.3390%2fma14092324&partnerID=40&md5=4c846be7d06977d42697c88c326e5923 - \endverb - \keyw{AISI-304 stainless steel,Atomic force microscopy,Carbides,Cavitation,Cavitation erosion,Cavitation erosion resistance,Chromium compounds,Cobalt alloy,Cobalt alloys,Cracks propagation,Damage mechanism,Engineering materials,Erosion,Failure analysis,Ion implantation,Ions,Linear transformations,Martensitic transformations,Mean depth of erosions,Metastable structures,Nitrogen,Nitrogen ion implantations,Phase transformation,Plastic deformation,Stellite,Stellite 6,Strain hardening,Surface profilometers,Wear,X ray diffraction} - \endentry - \entry{thiruvengadamTheoryErosion1967}{article}{}{} - \name{author}{1}{}{% - {{hash=d3cae98a50611da092efbc498a5a497c}{% - family={Thiruvengadam}, - familyi={T\bibinitperiod}, - given={Alagu}, - giveni={A\bibinitperiod}}}% - } - \strng{namehash}{d3cae98a50611da092efbc498a5a497c} - \strng{fullhash}{d3cae98a50611da092efbc498a5a497c} - \strng{fullhashraw}{d3cae98a50611da092efbc498a5a497c} - \strng{bibnamehash}{d3cae98a50611da092efbc498a5a497c} - \strng{authorbibnamehash}{d3cae98a50611da092efbc498a5a497c} - \strng{authornamehash}{d3cae98a50611da092efbc498a5a497c} - \strng{authorfullhash}{d3cae98a50611da092efbc498a5a497c} - \strng{authorfullhashraw}{d3cae98a50611da092efbc498a5a497c} - \field{sortinit}{6} - \field{sortinithash}{b33bc299efb3c36abec520a4c896a66d} - \field{labelnamesource}{author} - \field{labeltitlesource}{title} - \field{abstract}{An elementary theory of erosion is derived based on the assumptions of 'accumulation' and 'attenuation' of the energies of impact causing erosion. This theory quantitatively predicts the relative intensity of erosion as a function of relative time and this prediction is in fair agreement with experimental observations. Since the intensity of collision, the distance of shock transmission and the material failure are all statistical events, a generalization of the elementary theory is suggested. Some of the practical results of this theory are the predictions of the cumulative depth of erosion, the determination of erosion strength and the method of correlation with other parameters such as liquid properties and hydrodynamic factors. Modifications of this theory for brittle and viscoelastic materials are also suggested. (Author)} - \field{journaltitle}{Proc. 2nd Meersburg Conf. on Rain Erosion and Allied Phenomena} - \field{month}{3} - \field{title}{Theory of erosion} - \field{volume}{2} - \field{year}{1967} - \field{pages}{53} - \range{pages}{1} - \endentry - \enddatalist -\endrefsection - -\refsection{1} - \datalist[entry]{none/global//global/global/global} - \entry{C05}{misc}{}{} - \name{author}{1}{}{% - {{hash=fc13b91fcf8c46eeb4e62740272a1ba9}{% - family={Awesome}, - familyi={A\bibinitperiod}, - given={F.}, - giveni={F\bibinitperiod}}}% - } - \strng{namehash}{fc13b91fcf8c46eeb4e62740272a1ba9} - \strng{fullhash}{fc13b91fcf8c46eeb4e62740272a1ba9} - \strng{fullhashraw}{fc13b91fcf8c46eeb4e62740272a1ba9} - \strng{bibnamehash}{fc13b91fcf8c46eeb4e62740272a1ba9} - \strng{authorbibnamehash}{fc13b91fcf8c46eeb4e62740272a1ba9} - \strng{authornamehash}{fc13b91fcf8c46eeb4e62740272a1ba9} - \strng{authorfullhash}{fc13b91fcf8c46eeb4e62740272a1ba9} - \strng{authorfullhashraw}{fc13b91fcf8c46eeb4e62740272a1ba9} - \field{extraname}{1} - \field{sortinit}{2} - \field{sortinithash}{8b555b3791beccb63322c22f3320aa9a} - \field{labelnamesource}{author} - \field{labeltitlesource}{title} - \field{title}{Frank} - \field{year}{2005} - \true{nocite} - \keyw{mine} - \endentry - \entry{C06}{misc}{}{} - \name{author}{1}{}{% - {{hash=fc13b91fcf8c46eeb4e62740272a1ba9}{% - family={Awesome}, - familyi={A\bibinitperiod}, - given={F.}, - giveni={F\bibinitperiod}}}% - } - \strng{namehash}{fc13b91fcf8c46eeb4e62740272a1ba9} - \strng{fullhash}{fc13b91fcf8c46eeb4e62740272a1ba9} - \strng{fullhashraw}{fc13b91fcf8c46eeb4e62740272a1ba9} - \strng{bibnamehash}{fc13b91fcf8c46eeb4e62740272a1ba9} - \strng{authorbibnamehash}{fc13b91fcf8c46eeb4e62740272a1ba9} - \strng{authornamehash}{fc13b91fcf8c46eeb4e62740272a1ba9} - \strng{authorfullhash}{fc13b91fcf8c46eeb4e62740272a1ba9} - \strng{authorfullhashraw}{fc13b91fcf8c46eeb4e62740272a1ba9} - \field{extraname}{2} - \field{sortinit}{3} - \field{sortinithash}{ad6fe7482ffbd7b9f99c9e8b5dccd3d7} - \field{labelnamesource}{author} - \field{labeltitlesource}{title} - \field{title}{frank, but lowercase} - \field{year}{2006} - \true{nocite} - \keyw{mine} - \endentry - \enddatalist -\endrefsection -\endinput - +version https://git-lfs.github.com/spec/v1 +oid sha256:df2218c8a69f564e8e843dac3a0cc9d69d0a1549b677a393913ce6cab7f45ffa +size 135083 diff --git a/Thesis.lof b/Thesis.lof index 4540701..4c1345d 100644 --- a/Thesis.lof +++ b/Thesis.lof @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ \addvspace {10\p@ } \contentsline {xchapter}{Introduction}{2}{chapter.1}% \addvspace {10\p@ } -\contentsline {xchapter}{Analytical Investigations}{9}{chapter.2}% +\contentsline {xchapter}{Analytical Investigations}{8}{chapter.2}% \addvspace {10\p@ } -\contentsline {xchapter}{Experimental Investigations}{12}{chapter.3}% +\contentsline {xchapter}{Experimental Investigations}{11}{chapter.3}% \addvspace {10\p@ } -\contentsline {xchapter}{Discussion}{13}{chapter.4}% +\contentsline {xchapter}{Discussion}{16}{chapter.4}% diff --git a/Thesis.lot b/Thesis.lot index 4540701..4c1345d 100644 --- a/Thesis.lot +++ b/Thesis.lot @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ \addvspace {10\p@ } \contentsline {xchapter}{Introduction}{2}{chapter.1}% \addvspace {10\p@ } -\contentsline {xchapter}{Analytical Investigations}{9}{chapter.2}% +\contentsline {xchapter}{Analytical Investigations}{8}{chapter.2}% \addvspace {10\p@ } -\contentsline {xchapter}{Experimental Investigations}{12}{chapter.3}% +\contentsline {xchapter}{Experimental Investigations}{11}{chapter.3}% \addvspace {10\p@ } -\contentsline {xchapter}{Discussion}{13}{chapter.4}% +\contentsline {xchapter}{Discussion}{16}{chapter.4}% diff --git a/Thesis.mtc1 b/Thesis.mtc1 index 223f1f2..0d0b5d8 100644 --- a/Thesis.mtc1 +++ b/Thesis.mtc1 @@ -1,11 +1,4 @@ -{\reset@font\mtcSfont\mtc@string\contentsline{section}{\noexpand \leavevmode \numberline {1.1}Paragraph 4: Synergistic Challenges in Applications Prone to Corrosion and Cavitation\hfill {}\textsc {ignore}}{\reset@font\mtcSfont 6}{section.1.1}} -{\reset@font\mtcSfont\mtc@string\contentsline{section}{\noexpand \leavevmode \numberline {1.2}Paragraph 5: Research and Development for Enhanced Corrosion and Cavitation Performance\hfill {}\textsc {ignore}}{\reset@font\mtcSfont 6}{section.1.2}} -{\reset@font\mtcSfont\mtc@string\contentsline{section}{\noexpand \leavevmode \numberline {1.3}Paragraph 6: Influence of HIPing\hfill {}\textsc {ignore}}{\reset@font\mtcSfont 6}{section.1.3}} -{\reset@font\mtcSfont\mtc@string\contentsline{section}{\noexpand \leavevmode \numberline {1.4}Paragraph: Cavitation Erosion Resistance}{\reset@font\mtcSfont 6}{section.1.4}} -{\reset@font\mtcSfont\mtc@string\contentsline{section}{\noexpand \leavevmode \numberline {1.5}General Background}{\reset@font\mtcSfont 6}{section.1.5}} -{\reset@font\mtcSfont\mtc@string\contentsline{section}{\noexpand \leavevmode \numberline {1.6}Stellite 1}{\reset@font\mtcSfont 8}{section.1.6}} -{\reset@font\mtcSfont\mtc@string\contentsline{section}{\noexpand \leavevmode \numberline {1.7}Stellites}{\reset@font\mtcSfont 8}{section.1.7}} -{\reset@font\mtcSfont\mtc@string\contentsline{section}{\noexpand \leavevmode \numberline {1.8}Objectives and Scope of the Research Work}{\reset@font\mtcSfont 8}{section.1.8}} -{\reset@font\mtcSfont\mtc@string\contentsline{section}{\noexpand \leavevmode \numberline {1.9}Thesis Outline}{\reset@font\mtcSfont 8}{section.1.9}} -{\reset@font\mtcSfont\mtc@string\contentsline{section}{\noexpand \leavevmode \numberline {1.10}Literature Survey}{\reset@font\mtcSfont 8}{section.1.10}} -{\reset@font\mtcSfont\mtc@string\contentsline{section}{\noexpand \leavevmode \numberline {1.11}Cavitation Tests}{\reset@font\mtcSfont 8}{section.1.11}} +{\reset@font\mtcSfont\mtc@string\contentsline{section}{\noexpand \leavevmode \numberline {1.1}Paragraph: Introduction to Stellite Alloys for Hostile Environments\hfill {}\textsc {ignore\_heading}}{\reset@font\mtcSfont 2}{section.1.1}} +{\reset@font\mtcSfont\mtc@string\contentsline{section}{\noexpand \leavevmode \numberline {1.2}Role of HIPping vs as Cast}{\reset@font\mtcSfont 2}{section.1.2}} +{\reset@font\mtcSfont\mtc@string\contentsline{section}{\noexpand \leavevmode \numberline {1.3}Paragraph: Tungsten and Molybdenum carbides}{\reset@font\mtcSfont 2}{section.1.3}} +{\reset@font\mtcSfont\mtc@string\contentsline{section}{\noexpand \leavevmode \numberline {1.4}Corrosion resistance of Stellites}{\reset@font\mtcSfont 6}{section.1.4}} diff --git a/Thesis.mtc2 b/Thesis.mtc2 index 70db0fe..6fa61ec 100644 --- a/Thesis.mtc2 +++ b/Thesis.mtc2 @@ -1,2 +1,2 @@ -{\reset@font\mtcSfont\mtc@string\contentsline{section}{\noexpand \leavevmode \numberline {2.1}Strain hardening}{\reset@font\mtcSfont 9}{section.2.1}} -{\reset@font\mtcSfont\mtc@string\contentsline{section}{\noexpand \leavevmode \numberline {2.2}Correlative empirical methods}{\reset@font\mtcSfont 9}{section.2.2}} +{\reset@font\mtcSfont\mtc@string\contentsline{section}{\noexpand \leavevmode \numberline {2.1}Strain hardening}{\reset@font\mtcSfont 8}{section.2.1}} +{\reset@font\mtcSfont\mtc@string\contentsline{section}{\noexpand \leavevmode \numberline {2.2}Correlative empirical methods}{\reset@font\mtcSfont 8}{section.2.2}} diff --git a/Thesis.mtc3 b/Thesis.mtc3 index 59ce9d2..d28b95f 100644 --- a/Thesis.mtc3 +++ b/Thesis.mtc3 @@ -1 +1,10 @@ -{\reset@font\mtcSfont\mtc@string\contentsline{section}{\noexpand \leavevmode \numberline {3.1}Materials and Microstructure}{\reset@font\mtcSfont 12}{section.3.1}} +{\reset@font\mtcSfont\mtc@string\contentsline{section}{\noexpand \leavevmode \numberline {3.1}Materials and Microstructure}{\reset@font\mtcSfont 11}{section.3.1}} +{\reset@font\mtcSfont\mtc@string\contentsline{section}{\noexpand \leavevmode \numberline {3.2}Materials and Microstructure}{\reset@font\mtcSfont 11}{section.3.2}} +{\reset@font\mtcSfont\mtc@string\contentsline{section}{\noexpand \leavevmode \numberline {3.3}Experimental determination of SFE}{\reset@font\mtcSfont 12}{section.3.3}} +{\reset@font\mtcSfont\mtc@string\contentsline{section}{\noexpand \leavevmode \numberline {3.4}Electrochemical instrument and experiments}{\reset@font\mtcSfont 13}{section.3.4}} +{\reset@font\mtcSfont\mtc@string\contentsline{section}{\noexpand \leavevmode \numberline {3.5}Stellite 1}{\reset@font\mtcSfont 15}{section.3.5}} +{\reset@font\mtcSfont\mtc@string\contentsline{section}{\noexpand \leavevmode \numberline {3.6}Stellites}{\reset@font\mtcSfont 15}{section.3.6}} +{\reset@font\mtcSfont\mtc@string\contentsline{section}{\noexpand \leavevmode \numberline {3.7}Objectives and Scope of the Research Work}{\reset@font\mtcSfont 15}{section.3.7}} +{\reset@font\mtcSfont\mtc@string\contentsline{section}{\noexpand \leavevmode \numberline {3.8}Thesis Outline}{\reset@font\mtcSfont 15}{section.3.8}} +{\reset@font\mtcSfont\mtc@string\contentsline{section}{\noexpand \leavevmode \numberline {3.9}Literature Survey}{\reset@font\mtcSfont 15}{section.3.9}} +{\reset@font\mtcSfont\mtc@string\contentsline{section}{\noexpand \leavevmode \numberline {3.10}Cavitation Tests}{\reset@font\mtcSfont 15}{section.3.10}} diff --git a/Thesis.mtc4 b/Thesis.mtc4 index ab5209c..59b1648 100644 --- a/Thesis.mtc4 +++ b/Thesis.mtc4 @@ -1,5 +1,5 @@ -{\reset@font\mtcSfont\mtc@string\contentsline{section}{\noexpand \leavevmode \numberline {4.1}Experimental Test Procedure}{\reset@font\mtcSfont 13}{section.4.1}} -{\reset@font\mtcSSfont\mtc@string\contentsline{subsection}{\noexpand \leavevmode \numberline {4.1.1}Hardness Tests}{\reset@font\mtcSSfont 13}{subsection.4.1.1}} -{\reset@font\mtcSSfont\mtc@string\contentsline{subsection}{\noexpand \leavevmode \numberline {4.1.2}Cavitation}{\reset@font\mtcSSfont 13}{subsection.4.1.2}} -{\reset@font\mtcSfont\mtc@string\contentsline{section}{\noexpand \leavevmode \numberline {4.2}Relationships between cavitation erosion resistance and mechanical properties}{\reset@font\mtcSfont 13}{section.4.2}} -{\reset@font\mtcSfont\mtc@string\contentsline{section}{\noexpand \leavevmode \numberline {4.3}Influence of vibratory amplitude}{\reset@font\mtcSfont 13}{section.4.3}} +{\reset@font\mtcSfont\mtc@string\contentsline{section}{\noexpand \leavevmode \numberline {4.1}Experimental Test Procedure}{\reset@font\mtcSfont 16}{section.4.1}} +{\reset@font\mtcSSfont\mtc@string\contentsline{subsection}{\noexpand \leavevmode \numberline {4.1.1}Hardness Tests}{\reset@font\mtcSSfont 16}{subsection.4.1.1}} +{\reset@font\mtcSSfont\mtc@string\contentsline{subsection}{\noexpand \leavevmode \numberline {4.1.2}Cavitation}{\reset@font\mtcSSfont 16}{subsection.4.1.2}} +{\reset@font\mtcSfont\mtc@string\contentsline{section}{\noexpand \leavevmode \numberline {4.2}Relationships between cavitation erosion resistance and mechanical properties}{\reset@font\mtcSfont 16}{section.4.2}} +{\reset@font\mtcSfont\mtc@string\contentsline{section}{\noexpand \leavevmode \numberline {4.3}Influence of vibratory amplitude}{\reset@font\mtcSfont 16}{section.4.3}} diff --git a/Thesis.mtc6 b/Thesis.mtc6 new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e69de29 diff --git a/Thesis.org b/Thesis.org index 5c4c16d..53ceb95 100644 --- a/Thesis.org +++ b/Thesis.org @@ -1,6 +1,7 @@ #+LaTeX_CLASS: report #+OPTIONS: author:nil date:nil title:nil toc:nil +# Submerged Sonic Sledhammers Sharply Shape Synthesized Stellite Specimens, Showcasing Superior Strength * Preamble :ignore_heading: #+LaTeX: \dominitoc @@ -14,7 +15,8 @@ #+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage{pdflscape} #+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage{booktabs,caption} #+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage{longtable} -#+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage[flushleft]{threeparttable} +#+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage{makecell} +#+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage[flushleft]{threeparttablex} #+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage{multirow} #+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage{caption} #+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage{booktabs} % Added for nicer rules @@ -205,10 +207,6 @@ #+LaTeX_HEADER: %% Year of submission #+LaTeX_HEADER: \newcommand{\yearDate}{2042} -** Acronyms :ignore_heading: - - - ** Packages 2 :ignore_heading: #+LaTeX_HEADER: \usepackage{subfiles} @@ -363,9 +361,7 @@ I don't what it is actually. ** Introduction -*** Paragraph: Cavitation :ignore_heading: - - +*** TODO Paragraph: Cavitation :ignore_heading: *** Paragraph: Introduction to Stellite Alloys for Hostile Environments :ignore_heading: #+BEGIN_COMMENT @@ -377,7 +373,7 @@ I don't what it is actually. Stellite 6 with nominal composition #+END_COMMENT -Stellites are cobalt-base superalloys used in aggresive service environments due to retention of strength, wear resistance, and oxidation resistance at high temperature \cite{ahmedStructurePropertyRelationships2014, shinEffectMolybdenumMicrostructure2003}. Originating with Elwood Haynes's development of alloys like Stellite 6 in the early 1900s \cite{hasanBasicsStellitesMachining2016}, stellites quickly found use in medical implants & tools, machine tools, and nuclear components, and new variations on the original CoCrWC and CoCrMoC alloys are spreading to new sectors like oil & gas and chemical processing \cite{malayogluComparingPerformanceHIPed2003, ahmedStructurePropertyRelationships2014, raghuRecentDevelopmentsWear1997}. +Stellites are a family of cobalt-base superalloys used in aggresive service environments due to retention of strength, wear resistance, and oxidation resistance at high temperature \cite{ahmedStructurePropertyRelationships2014, shinEffectMolybdenumMicrostructure2003}. Starting with Elwood Haynes's development of alloys like Stellite 6 in the early 1900s \cite{hasanBasicsStellitesMachining2016}, stellites became critical to components used in medical implants & tools, machine tools, and nuclear components, and new variations on the original CoCrWC and CoCrMoC alloys see expanding use in sectors like oil & gas and chemical processing \cite{malayogluComparingPerformanceHIPed2003, ahmedStructurePropertyRelationships2014, raghuRecentDevelopmentsWear1997}. *** Paragraph: Impact of Composition, Microstructure, and Processing on Corrosion and Cavitation Performance :ignore_heading: @@ -388,40 +384,85 @@ Stellites are cobalt-base superalloys used in aggresive service environments due + [ ] Carbon grades #+END_COMMENT -The main alloying elements in Stellite alloys are cobalt (Co), chromium (25-33 wt% Cr), tungsten (0-18 wt% W), molybdenum (0-18 wt% Mo), carbon (0.1-3.3 wt% C), and trace elements iron (Fe), nickel (Ni), silicon (Si), phosphorus (P), sulphur (S), boron (B), lanthanum (La), & manganese (Mn); \tref{tab:stellite_composition} summarizes the nominal and measured composition of commonly used Stellite alloys \cite{ahmedMappingMechanicalProperties2023, alimardaniEffectLocalizedDynamic2010, ashworthMicrostructurePropertyRelationships1999, bunchCorrosionGallingResistant1989, davis2000nickel, desaiEffectCarbideSize1984, ferozhkhanMetallurgicalStudyStellite2017, pacquentinTemperatureInfluenceRepair2025, ratiaComparisonSlidingWear2019, zhangFrictionWearCharacterization2002}. Stellite alloys possess a composite-like microstructure, combining a cobalt-rich matrix strengthened by solid solutions of chromium, tungsten, & molybdenum, with hard carbide phases with carbide formers Cr (of carbide type $\textrm{M}_{7}\textrm{C}_{3}$ & $\textrm{M}_{23}\textrm{C}_{6}$) and W/Mo (of carbide type $\textrm{MC}$ & $\textrm{M}_{6}\textrm{C}$), that impede wear and crack propagation \cite{ahmedSlidingWearBlended2021a, crookCobaltbaseAlloysResist1994}. The proportion and type of carbides depend on carbon content and the relative amounts of carbon with carbide formers (Cr, W, Mo), which greatly influence alloy performance and intended applications; high carbon alloy (>1.2 wt%) have greater carbide formation and are primarily used for wear resistance, low carbon alloys (<0.5 wt%) are used for enhanced corrosion resistance, while medium carbon alloys (0.5 wt% - 1.2 wt%) are used in applications requiring a combination of wear and corrosion resistance \cite{davis2000nickel}. +The main alloying elements in Stellite alloys are cobalt (Co), chromium (25-33 wt% Cr), tungsten (0-18 wt% W), molybdenum (0-18 wt% Mo), carbon (0.1-3.3 wt% C), and trace elements iron (Fe), nickel (Ni), silicon (Si), phosphorus (P), sulphur (S), boron (B), lanthanum (La), & manganese (Mn); \tref{tab:stellite_composition} summarizes the nominal and measured composition of commonly used Stellite alloys \cite{ahmedMappingMechanicalProperties2023, alimardaniEffectLocalizedDynamic2010, ashworthMicrostructurePropertyRelationships1999, bunchCorrosionGallingResistant1989, davis2000nickel, desaiEffectCarbideSize1984, ferozhkhanMetallurgicalStudyStellite2017, pacquentinTemperatureInfluenceRepair2025, ratiaComparisonSlidingWear2019, zhangFrictionWearCharacterization2002}. Stellite alloys possess a composite-like microstructure, combining a cobalt-rich matrix strengthened by solid solutions of chromium, tungsten, & molybdenum, with embedded hard carbide phases with carbide formers Cr (of carbide type $\textrm{M}_{7}\textrm{C}_{3}$ & $\textrm{M}_{23}\textrm{C}_{6}$) and W/Mo (of carbide type $\textrm{MC}$ & $\textrm{M}_{6}\textrm{C}$), that impede wear and crack propagation \cite{ahmedSlidingWearBlended2021a, crookCobaltbaseAlloysResist1994}. -# In addition to the solid solution toughness and carbide hardness, the stress-induced FCC \textrightarrow{} HCP phase transformation of the Co-based solid solution further increases wear resistance through work hardening. -**** Table: Show the table of stellite compositions :ignore_heading: - -#+begin_export latex +#+begin_src latex :tangle noweb :noweb yes :exports results \afterpage{% \begin{landscape} \begin{ThreePartTable} + +%\renewcommand\TPTminimum{\pageheight} +%% Arrange for "longtable" to take up full width of text block +%\setlength\LTleft{0pt} +%\setlength\LTright{0pt} +%\setlength\tabcolsep{0pt} + +\begin{TableNotes} + \small + \item[a] Hot Isostatic Pressing + \item[b] Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy + \item[c] Shielded metal arc welding + \item[d] Gas tungsten Arc Welding + \item[e] Plasma transfered Arc Welding +\end{TableNotes} + \caption{Stellite Compositions} \label{tab:stellite_composition} \begin{longtable}{l|ll|ll|l|llllllll|lll} -% \toprule & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Base} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Refractory} & Carbon & \multicolumn{8}{c}{Others} & \multicolumn{3}{c}{} \\ - \toprule \textbf{Alloy} & \textbf{Co} & \textbf{Cr} & \textbf{W} & \textbf{Mo} & \textbf{C} & \textbf{Fe} & \textbf{Ni} & \textbf{Si} & \textbf{P} & \textbf{S} & \textbf{B} & \textbf{La} & \textbf{Mn} & \textbf{Ref} & \textbf{Process Type} & \textbf{Observation} \\ +<> +<> +<> +<> +<> +<> +<> +<> +<> +<> +<> + + +\end{longtable} +\end{ThreePartTable} +\end{landscape} +} +#+end_src + +**** Table: Show the table of stellite compositions :ignore:noexport: + +***** Stellite 1 :ignore:noexport: +#+NAME: stellite1 +#+begin_src latex :tangle noweb :exports none \midrule \multirow{4}{*}{Stellite 1} & 47.7 & 30 & 13 & 0.5 & 2.5 & 3 & 1.5 & 1.3 & & & & & 0.5 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\ & 48.6 & 33 & 12.5 & 0 & 2.5 & 1 & 1 & 1.3 & & & & & 0.1 & \cite{alimardaniEffectLocalizedDynamic2010} & & \\ & 46.84 & 31.7 & 12.7 & 0.29 & 2.47 & 2.3 & 2.38 & 1.06 & & & & & 0.26 & \cite{ahmedMappingMechanicalProperties2023} & HIPed\tnote{a} & ICP-OES\tnote{b} \\ +#+end_src +***** Stellite 3 :ignore:noexport: + +#+NAME: stellite3 +#+begin_src latex :tangle noweb :exports none \midrule \multirow{2}{*}{Stellite 3} & 50.5 & 33 & 14 & & 2.5 & & & & & & & & & \cite{bunchCorrosionGallingResistant1989} & & \\ & 49.24 & 29.57 & 12.07 & 0.67 & 2.52 & 2.32 & 1.07 & 1.79 & & & & & 0.75 & \cite{ratiaComparisonSlidingWear2019} & HIPed\tnote{a} & ICP-OES\tnote{b} \\ +#+end_src +***** Stellite 4 :ignore:noexport: + +#+NAME: stellite4 +#+begin_src latex :tangle noweb :exports none \midrule \multirow{5}{*}{Stellite 4} & 45.43 & 30 & 14 & 1 & 0.57 & 3 & 3 & 2 & & & & & 1 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\ @@ -429,7 +470,11 @@ The main alloying elements in Stellite alloys are cobalt (Co), chromium (25-33 w & 51.9 & 33 & 14 & & 1.1 & & & & & & & & & \cite{bunchCorrosionGallingResistant1989} & & \\ & 49.41 & 31 & 14 & 0.12 & 0.67 & 2.16 & 1.82 & 1.04 & & & & & 0.26 & \cite{ahmedMappingMechanicalProperties2023} & HIPed\tnote{a} & ICP-OES\tnote{b} \\ & 50.2 & 29.8 & 14.4 & 0 & 0.7 & 1.9 & 1.9 & 0.8 & & & & & 0.3 & \cite{ashworthMicrostructurePropertyRelationships1999} & HIPed\tnote{a} & \\ +#+end_src +***** Stellite 6 :ignore:noexport: +#+NAME: stellite6 +#+begin_src latex :tangle noweb :exports none \midrule \multirow{10}{*}{Stellite 6} & 51.5 & 28.5 & 4.5 & 1.5 & 1 & 5 & 3 & 2 & & & 1 & & 2 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\ @@ -442,115 +487,229 @@ The main alloying elements in Stellite alloys are cobalt (Co), chromium (25-33 w & 52.40 & 30.37 & 3.57 & & 0.96 & 6.46 & 3.93 & 1.70 & 0.01 & 0.01 & & & 0.3 & \cite{ferozhkhanMetallurgicalStudyStellite2017} & SMAW\tnote{c} & OES \\ & 60.3 & & 31.10 & 4.70 & 0.30 & 1.10 & 1.70 & 1.50 & 1.30 & & 0.00 & & 0.3 & \cite{pacquentinTemperatureInfluenceRepair2025} & LP-DED & ICP-AES \& GDMS \\ & 60.6 & 27.7 & 5 & 0 & 1.2 & 1.9 & 2 & 1.3 & & & & & 0.3 & \cite{ashworthMicrostructurePropertyRelationships1999} & HIPed\tnote{a} & \\ +#+end_src +***** Stellite 7 :ignore:noexport: +#+NAME: stellite7 +#+begin_src latex :tangle noweb :exports none % \midrule % Stellite 7 % & 64 & 25.9 & 4.9 & 0 & 0.5 & 1.5 & 1.1 & 1.1 & & & & & 1 & \cite{ashworthMicrostructurePropertyRelationships1999} & HIPed\tnote{a} & \\ +#+end_src +***** Stellite 12 :ignore:noexport: + +#+NAME: stellite12 +#+begin_src latex :tangle noweb :exports none \midrule \multirow{2}{*}{Stellite 12} & 53.6 & 30 & 8.3 & & 1.4 & 3 & 1.5 & 0.7 & & & & & 1.5 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\ -& 55.22 & 29.65 & 8.15 & 0.2 & 1.49 & 2.07 & 2.04 & 0.91 & & & & & 0.27 & \cite{ahmedMappingMechanicalProperties2023} & HIPed\tnote{a} & ICP-OES \\ +& 55.22 & 29.65 & 8.15 & 0.2 & 1.49 & 2.07 & 2.04 & 0.91 & & & & & 0.27 & \cite{ahmedMappingMechanicalProperties2023} & HIPed\tnote{a} & ICP-OES\tnote{b} \\ +#+end_src + +***** Stellite 19 :ignore:noexport: + +#+NAME: stellite19 +#+begin_src latex :tangle noweb :exports none \midrule Stellite 19 & 50.94 & 31.42 & 10.08 & 0.79 & 2.36 & 1.82 & 2 & 0.4 & & & 0.09 & & 0.1 & \cite{desaiEffectCarbideSize1984} & & \\ +#+end_src + +***** Stellite 20 :ignore:noexport: + +#+NAME: stellite20 +#+begin_src latex :tangle noweb :exports none \midrule \multirow{2}{*}{Stellite 20} & 41.05 & 33 & 17.5 & & 2.45 & 2.5 & 2.5 & & & & & & 1 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\ -& 43.19 & 31.85 & 16.3 & 0.27 & 2.35 & 2.5 & 2.28 & 1 & & & & & 0.26 & \cite{ahmedMappingMechanicalProperties2023} & HIPed\tnote{a} & ICP-OES \\ +& 43.19 & 31.85 & 16.3 & 0.27 & 2.35 & 2.5 & 2.28 & 1 & & & & & 0.26 & \cite{ahmedMappingMechanicalProperties2023} & HIPed\tnote{a} & ICP-OES\tnote{b} \\ +#+end_src +***** Stellite 21 :ignore:noexport: +#+NAME: stellite21 +#+begin_src latex :tangle noweb :exports none \midrule \multirow{2}{*}{Stellite 21} & 59.493 & 27 & & 5.5 & 0.25 & 3 & 2.75 & 1 & & & 0.007 & & 1 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\ & 60.6 & 26.9 & 0 & 5.7 & 0.2 & 1.3 & 2.7 & 1.9 & & & & & 0.7 & \cite{ashworthMicrostructurePropertyRelationships1999} & HIPed\tnote{a} & \\ +#+end_src +***** Stellite 22 :ignore:noexport: +#+NAME: stellite22 +#+begin_src latex :tangle noweb :exports none % \midrule % Stellite 22 % & 54 & 27 & & 11 & 0.25 & 3 & 2.75 & 1 & & & & & 1 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\ +#+end_src + +***** Stellite 23 :ignore:noexport: +#+NAME: stellite23 +#+begin_src latex :tangle noweb :exports none % \midrule % Stellite 23 % & 65.5 & 24 & 5 & & 0.4 & 1 & 2 & 0.6 & & & & & 0.3 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\ +#+end_src +***** Stellite 25 :ignore:noexport: +#+NAME: stellite25 +#+begin_src latex :tangle noweb :exports none % \midrule % Stellite 25 % & 49.4 & 20 & 15 & & 0.1 & 3 & 10 & 1 & & & & & 1.5 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\ +#+end_src +***** Stellite 27 :ignore:noexpoer: +#+NAME: stellite27 +#+begin_src latex :tangle noweb :exports none % \midrule % Stellite 27 % & 35 & 25 & & 5.5 & 0.4 & 1 & 32 & 0.6 & & & & & 0.3 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\ +#+end_src +***** Stellite 30 :ignore:noexport: +#+NAME: stellite30 +#+begin_src latex :tangle noweb :exports none % \midrule % Stellite 30 % & 50.5 & 26 & & 6 & 0.45 & 1 & 15 & 0.6 & & & & & 0.6 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\ +#+end_src +***** Stellite 31 :ignore:noexport: +#+NAME: stellite31 +#+begin_src latex :tangle noweb :exports none \midrule \multirow{2}{*}{Stellite 31} & 57.5 & 22 & 7.5 & & 0.5 & 1.5 & 10 & 0.5 & & & & & 0.5 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\ & 52.9 & 25.3 & 7.8 & 0 & 0.5 & 1.1 & 11.4 & 0.6 & & & & & 0.4 & \cite{ashworthMicrostructurePropertyRelationships1999} & HIPed\tnote{a} & \\ +#+end_src +***** Stellite 80 :ignore:noexport: +#+NAME: stellite80 +#+begin_src latex :tangle noweb :exports none % \midrule % Stellite 80 % & 44.6 & 33.5 & 19 & & 1.9 & & & & & & 1 & & & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\ +#+end_src +***** Stellite 188 :ignore:noexport: + +#+NAME: stellite188 +#+begin_src latex :tangle noweb :exports none % \midrule % Stellite 188 % & 37.27 & 22 & 14 & & 0.1 & 3 & 22 & 0.35 & & & & 0.03 & 1.25 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\ +#+end_src +***** Stellite 190 :ignore:noexport: + +#+NAME: stellite190 +#+begin_src latex :tangle noweb :exports none \midrule \multirow{2}{*}{Stellite 190} & 46.7 & 27 & 14 & 1 & 3.3 & 3 & 3 & 1 & & & & & 1 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\ & 48.72 & 27.25 & 14.4 & 0.2 & 3.21 & 2.1 & 2.81 & 1 & & & & & 0.31 & \cite{ahmedMappingMechanicalProperties2023} -& HIPed\tnote{a} & ICP-OES\tnote{*} \\ +& HIPed\tnote{a} & ICP-OES\tnote{b} \\ +#+end_src +***** Stellite 300 :ignore:noexport: +#+NAME: stellite300 +#+begin_src latex :tangle noweb :exports none % \midrule % Stellite 300 % & 44.5 & 22 & 32 & & 1.5 & & & & & & & & & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\ +#+end_src +***** Stellite 694 :ignore:noexport: +#+NAME: stellite694 +#+begin_src latex :tangle noweb :exports none % \midrule % Stellite 694 % & 45 & 28 & 19 & & 1 & 5 & & 1 & & & & & 1 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\ +#+end_src +***** Stellite 703 :ignore:noexport: +#+NAME: stellite703 +#+begin_src latex :tangle noweb :exports none % \midrule % Stellite 703 % & 44.6 & 32 & & 12 & 2.4 & 3 & 3 & 1.5 & & & & & 1.5 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\ +#+end_src +***** Stellite 706 :ignore:noexport: +#+NAME: stellite706 +#+begin_src latex :tangle noweb :exports none % \midrule % Stellite 706 % & 55.8 & 29 & & 5 & 1.2 & 3 & 3 & 1.5 & & & & & 1.5 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\ +#+end_src +***** Stellite 712 :ignore:noexport: +#+NAME: stellite712 +#+begin_src latex :tangle noweb :exports none % \midrule % Stellite 712 % & 51.5 & 29 & & 8.5 & 2 & 3 & 3 & 1.5 & & & & & 1.5 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\ +#+end_src +***** Stellite 720 :ignore:noexport: +#+NAME: stellite720 +#+begin_src latex :tangle noweb :exports none % \midrule % Stellite 720 % & 37.2 & 33 & & 18 & 2.5 & 3 & 3 & 1.5 & & & 0.3 & & 1.5 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\ - -\end{longtable} -\begin{tablenotes} - \small - \item[a] Hot Isostatic Pressing - \item[b] Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy - \item[c] Shielded metal arc welding - \item[d] Gas tungsten Arc Welding - \item[e] Plasma transfered Arc Welding -\end{tablenotes} -\end{ThreePartTable} -\end{landscape} -} -#+end_export - +#+end_src *** Paragraph: Co phases :ignore_heading: -The Co solid solution in Stellites is a metastable fcc crystal with a very low stacking fault energy. +Understanding the cobalt phase is crucial for studying structural changes in Co-based alloys widely used in industry. The fcc cobalt phase, especially its delayed transition to hcp at ambient and moderate temperatures \cite{DUBOS2020128812}, is of particular interest due to its impact on material properties in Co-based alloys \cite{Rajan19821161}. As the cobalt phase in stellite alloys is observed to consist of the fcc phase \cite{Rajan19821161}, the potential for strain-induced fcc to hcp transformation is of interest under the mechanical loading of cavitation erosion. + + +Cobalt exhibits a hexagonal close-packed (hcp) structure above 700 K \footnote{the theoretical transition temperature was determined to be 825 K by Lizarraga et al \cite{Lizarraga2017}} and shifts to a face-centered cubic (fcc) structure above this temperature. + + +At ambient conditions, the metastable FCC retained phase can be transformed into HCP phase by mechanical loading, although any HCP phase is completely transformed into a FCC phase between 673 K and 743 K \cite{DUBOS2020128812}. + +The main allotropes of the Co solid solution in stellite are the hexagonal close-packed (hcp) $\epsilon−Co$ (ICDD# 01-071-4239) and the face-centered cubic (fcc) $\gamma−Co$ (ICDD 00-015-0806) \cite{wuMicrostructureEvolutionCrack2019} with the $\epsilon−Co$ phase being more thermodynamically stable below 700K \cite{lizarragaFirstPrinciplesTheory2017}. However the $\gamma$\textrightarrow$\epsilon$ transformation is difficult to achieve under normal condition, leading to cobalt alloys often retaining the metastable $\gamma$ phase \cite{davis2000nickel, frenkMicrostructuralEffectsSliding1994}. At ambient conditions, the metastable fcc retained phase in stellites can undergo a strain-induced martensitic-type transition involving partial dislocation movement \cite{HUANG2023106170}, such as during cavitation erosion as observed experimentally by Woodford \cite{woodfordCavitationerosionlnducedPhaseTransformations1972}. + +The fcc to hcp transition is related to the very low stacking fault energy of the fcc structure (7 mJ/m2) of cobalt \cite{Tawancy1986337} +# The +# with a thermally induced + +# The $\gamma$\textrightarrow$\epsilon$ transformation can be induced at temperatures between 673 K and 743 K + + +# cobalt alloys often possess a majority $\gamma−Co$ phase because the $\gamma$\textrightarrow$\epsilon$ transformation rarely occurs under normal cooling conditions, + +This promotes the FCC→HCP martensitic transformation and improves the mechanical properties of the alloy. Phase composition seriously affects the properties of alloys. The FCC phase is soft and plastic, while the HCP phase is hard and not plastic. Therefore, when an alloy undergoes strain-induced FCC→HCP martensitic transformation, the martensite HCP phase plays a “secondary hardening” effect, which greatly improves the overall hardness of the alloy. + + + + +This fcc to hcp transition is linked to the very low stacking fault energy of the fcc structure (approximately 7 mJ/m²). The addition of other elements influences these characteristics: solid-solution strengthening increases the fcc cobalt matrix strength by distorting the atomic lattice and can decrease the low stacking fault energy by adjusting the electronic structure. Solute atoms like molybdenum (Mo) and tungsten (W), due to their large atomic sizes, discourage dislocation motion in stellites. Since dislocation cross-slip is a primary deformation mode in imperfect crystals at elevated temperatures and dislocation slip is a diffusion-enhanced process at high temperatures, this contributes to high-temperature stability. Furthermore, elements like nickel (Ni), iron (Fe), and carbon (C) stabilize the fcc structure of cobalt (a = 0.35 nm), while chromium (Cr) and tungsten (W) tend to stabilize the hcp structure (a = 0.25 nm and c = 0.41 nm). + + + +The $\epsilon-\textrm{Co}$ (ICDD# 01-071-4239)and $\gamma-\textrm{Co}$ (ICDD 00-015-0806) phases are the main phases of the Co solid solution in stellite +Although the $\epsilon-\textrm{Co}$ phase is more stable at room temperature according to the phase diagram, cobalt alloys often posses a majority $\gamma-\textrm{Co}$ phase; the $\gamma$\textrightarrow$\epsilon$ transformation rarely occurs under normal cooling condiyions and the metastable $\gamma$ phase is generally retained + + + +# Understanding the matrix phase +# Understanding the cobalt phase is crucial for studying structural changes in Co-based alloys widely used in industry. +Cobalt and Co-Cr alloys undergo thermally induced phase transformation from the high temperature face-centered cubic (fcc) $\gamma$ phase to low temperature hexagonal close-packed (hcp) $\epsilon$ phase at 700 K and strain induced fcc-hcp transition through maretensitic-type mechanism (partial movement of dislocations) \cite{HUANG2023106170}. At ambient conditions, the metastable FCC retained phase in stellites can be transformed into HCP phase by mechanical loading, although any HCP phase is completely transformed into a FCC phase between 673 K and 743 K \cite{DUBOS2020128812}; the metastable fcc cobalt phase in stellite alloys \cite{Rajan19821161} absorbs a large part of imparted energy under the mechanical loading of cavitation erosion. The fcc to hcp transition is related to the very low stacking fault energy of the fcc structure (7 mJ/m2) \cite{Tawancy1986337}. + +# Let's talk about the addition of other elements +Solid-solution strengthening leads to increase of the fcc cobalt matrix strength (due to distortion of the atomic lattice with the addition of elements of different atomic radii), and decrease of low stacking fault energy \cite{Tawancy1986337} due to the adjusted electronic structure of the metallic lattice. Dislocation motion in stellites is discouraged by solute atoms of Mo and W, due to the large atomic sizes. Given that dislocation cross slip is the main deformation mode in imperfect crystals at elevated temperature, as dislocation slip is a diffusion process that is enhanced at high temperature, this leads to high temperature stability \cite{LIU2022294}. In addition, nickel (Ni), iron (Fe), and carbon (C) stabilize the fcc structure of cobalt (a = 0.35 nm), while chromium (Cr) and tungsten (W), stabilize the hcp structure (a = 0.25 nm and c = 0.41 nm) \cite{Vacchieri20171100, Tawancy1986337}. + + +# The Co solid solution in Stellites is a metastable fcc crystal with a very low stacking fault energy. -\cite{davis2000nickel, frenkMicrostructuralEffectsSliding1994} # One of the main applications of Stellite alloys can be wear and erosion resistance, which results from various carbides and Co solid solution [1], [7]. Cobalt imparts to its alloys an unstable fcc crystal structure with a very low stacking fault energy. @@ -565,36 +724,108 @@ The Co solid solution in Stellites is a metastable fcc crystal with a very low s # The ε-Co and γ-Co phase are the main phases in Co alloys [39]. According to the phase diagram, the ε-Co phase is more stable at room temperature [40]. However, the γ-Co to ε-Co transformation rarely occurs under normal cooling conditions, and as a result, the γ-Co phase is generally retained at room temperature [39], as we found in the as-deposited Stellite 6 coatings. Nevertheless, this transformation can be triggered athermally (e.g. quenching from temperature of γ-Co) [25,41], isothermally (e.g. aging at temperatures between 650 °C and 950 °C) [35,42,43], or by strain [30,31]. In this study, the thermal fatigue process was achieved by quenching, with heating temperatures of up to 650 °C, and the crack tip introduced severe plastic deformation, all conditions that promote the γ-Co to ε-Co transformation. + +\cite{woodfordCavitationerosionlnducedPhaseTransformations1972} + +confirmed that $\gamma$\textrightarrow$\epsilon$ transformation occur on the surface of cobalt-base alloys during cavitation erosion, a relationship a direct relationship between . While the extent of this deformation-induced transformation was observed to increase with the severity of erosion and reach a steady state corresponding with the weight loss rate, subsequent experiments on Stellite 6B with varying initial hcp phase content and different aging treatments failed to establish a direct correlation between the transformation characteristics and erosion resistance. + + + +Solid-solution strengthening is provided by elements not tied in secondary phases, leading to increase of the fcc cobalt matrix strength. + +With the addition of elements with different atomic radiuses, the atomic lattice of the fcc cobalt matrix is distorted leading to increased strength. The already low stacking fault energy of the fcc cobalt structure (7 mJ/m2) \cite{Tawancy1986337} is further decreased, inhibiting dislocation cross slip. +Given that dislocation cross slip is the main deformation mode in imperfect crystals at elevated temperature, as dislocation slip is a diffusion process that is enhanced at high temperature, this leads to high temperature stability \cite{LIU2022294}. + +The addition of nickel (Ni), iron (Fe), and carbon (C) stabilize the fcc structure of cobalt, while chromium (Cr) and tungsten (W), stabilize the hcp structure. Cr guarantees hot corrosion resistance and forms M23C6 carbides, while form MC carbides \cite{Vacchieri20171100}. The fcc cobalt phase has lattice constant a = 0.35 nm while the hcp cobalt phase has lattice constant a = 0.25 nm and c = 0.41 nm \cite{Tawancy1986337}. + + + + + + +*** Paragraph: Carbides and the grades of stellite alloy :ignore_heading: + +The proportion and type of carbides depend on carbon content and the relative amounts of carbon with carbide formers (Cr, W, Mo), which greatly influence alloy performance and intended applications as carbides provide higher strength and but may reduce corrosion resistance due to localized corrosion at carbide boundaries. High carbon alloy (>1.2 wt%) have higher hardness due to greater carbide formation and are primarily used for wear resistance, low carbon alloys (<0.5 wt%) are used for enhanced corrosion resistance, and medium carbon alloys (0.5 wt% - 1.2 wt%) are used in applications requiring a combination of wear and corrosion resistance \cite{davis2000nickel}. + +The carbide and grain size can be controlled by the rate of freezing, with larger carbide sizes indicating slower freezing rates \cite{yuInfluenceManufacturingProcess2008}. + +# In addition to the solid solution toughness and carbide hardness, the stress-induced FCC \textrightarrow{} HCP phase transformation of the Co-based solid solution further increases wear resistance through work hardening. + + +# Cr has a dominant role in the formation of carbide type $\textrm{M}_23\textrm{C}_6$ + + + +*** Role of HIPping vs as Cast + +# The HIPed alloy had a much finer microstructure Fig. 2 d with Cr-rich carbides dark phase uniformly distributed in the matrix. The typical carbide size was 1 – 3 m, which was much finer than the cast counterpart. There was no bright W-rich phase observed in the HIPed microstructure, which could be attributed to the fast solidification in the powder manufacturing process, restricting the segregation of W-rich zones. Subsequently during HIPing of the powder, tungsten remained evenly distributed throughout the alloy because its large atomic radius hinders diffusion. This evolution of the HIPed microstructure was therefore fundamentally different from the dendritic microstructure of the cast alloy, which was caused by the rejection of elemental species in the melt during the crystal growth of Co-rich dendrites. Hence above the liquidus line of this complex Co alloy, elemental species were free to arrange themselves depending on the thermal kinetics of the mold without any dependency on diffusion, and hence a truly three-dimensional network of carbides was formed. + +# Contrary to this, in the case of HIPed microstructure, the primary dendrites formed on the alloy powder Fig. 2 a , and the carbides in the powder particles Fig. 3 a promoted carbide growth due to the diffusion of carbon and other elemental species within and across the individual powder particle boundaries. As this diffusion process is time, temperature, and pressure dependent during HIPing, and the HIPing temperature 1200° C in this investigation was lower than the melting point of the powder, carbide growth was sluggish when compared with casting. Hence the size of individual carbide particles was much smaller than the cast counterpart. Although not reported in Sec. 3, authors also found that re-HIPing the HIPed alloy under similar conditions as were reported earlier in Sec. 2.1 did not substantially increase the average carbide size, indicating that carbide growth was more dependent on temperature than time during the HIPing process. + + *** Paragraph: Stellite 1 :ignore_heading: # Stellite 1 is a high-carbon and high-tungsten CoCrWMoCFeNiSiMn alloy, making it suitable for tribological applications such as valve seating, wear pads in gas turbines, bearing sleeves, slurry pumps, ball bearings and expeller screws. Stellite 1 alloy is labeled as CoCrW alloy in this paper. Stellite 21 is a low-carbon, high-molybdenum alloy used in applications such as forging and hot-stamping dies and valve trims in the chemical industry (Ref 1, 2). -*** Paragraph: Tungsten & Molybdenum :ignore_heading: +*** Paragraph: Tungsten and Molybdenum carbides # Tungsten is primarily utilized in Stellite alloys to provide solid solution strength and carbide formation but can be replaced by Mo which also partitions to the carbides. -# Tungsten (W) and molybdenum (Mo) have a similar function in providing additional strength to Co solid solution matrix of Stellite alloys due to large atomic size, that is, they impede dislocation flow when present as solute atoms\cite{boeckRelationshipsProcessingMicrostructure1985}. +# Tungsten (W) and molybdenum (Mo) have a similar function in providing additional strength to Co solid solution matrix of Stellite alloys due to large atomic size, that is, they impede dislocation flow when present as solute atoms -Tungsten (W) and molybdenum (Mo) serve to provide additional strength to the matrix, when present in a small amount (<4 wt%), by virtue of their large atomic size that impedes dislocation flow when present as solute atoms. When present in large quantities, W and Mo also participate in formation of W-rich or Mo-rich carbides during alloy solidification +# Thermodynamic Modeling of the C-Co-Mo and C-Mo-Ni Ternary Systems +# zhangThermodynamicModelingCCoMo2016 -\cite{davis2000nickel} -\cite{raghuRecentDevelopmentsWear1997} +# Studies [18,19,20] show that the solid solubility of W in the Co phase can be increased through an appropriate heat treatment process which leads to the strengthening of the Co phase. The dissolution of W and C in the Co phase increases the stacking fault energy and martensitic transformation temperature, inhibits the martensitic transformation, and stabilizes the cobalt phase with a face-centered cubic crystal structure (fcc Co phase) which increases the toughness of the cemented carbide [14,18]. -*** Paragraph: Tungsten Carbide :ignore_heading: +Tungsten (W) and molybdenum (Mo) are refractory elements that provide solid solution strengthening to the matrix, by virtue of their large atomic size that impedes dislocation flow when present as solute atoms \cite{boeckRelationshipsProcessingMicrostructure1985}, and also form $\textrm{M}_6\textrm{C}$ and $\textrm{M}_12\textrm{C}$ carbides along with $\textrm{MC}$ carbides and $\textrm{Co}_3\textrm{M}$ & $\textrm{Co}_7\textrm{M}_6$ intermetallics during solidification. -There are two main phases in the tungsten-carbon system: the hexagonal $\textrm{WC}$ (ICDD Card# 03-065-4539, COD:2102265), denoted as $\delta-\textrm{WC}$, and multiple variations of hexagonal-close-packed \textrm{W}_2\textrm{C}$ (ICDD:00-002-1134, COD:1539792) \cite{kurlovPhaseEquilibriaWC2006}. +In carbon-rich regions, the $\textrm{MC}$ phase (of type $\textrm{WC}$ and $\textrm{MoC}$) is observed \cite{zhangThermodynamicInvestigationPhase2019}, which ca -# There are two hexagonal carbides in the tungsten – carbon system (Fig. 2): the monocarbide, WC, and the subcarbide [12070-13-2], W 2 C. The hexagonal WC, also called a-WC, decomposes at its incongruent melting point of 2776 C. Its range of homogeneity is extremely narrow: from 49.5 to 50.5 mol % C \cite{tulhoffCarbides2000} + +In carbon-poor regions, ternary $\textrm{M}_6\textrm{C}$ and $\textrm{M}_{12}\textrm{C}$ carbides have been identified, where the $\textrm{M}_6\textrm{C}$ carbide (of type $\textrm{Co}_3\textrm{Mo}_3\textrm{C}$) is stable in the temperature ranges of 900C to 1300C and can vary in composition from Mo_40_Co_46C_14 to Mo56Co30C14, while the $Mo_12C$ carbide of type ($Co6Mo6C$ carbide decomposes into $Mo_6C$ and $\mu-Mo$ phases above 1100C \cite{zhangThermodynamicModelingCCoMo2016}. + +When present in large quantities, W and Mo also participate in formation of W-rich or Mo-rich carbides during alloy solidification \cite{davis2000nickel, raghuRecentDevelopmentsWear1997}, + +leading to generation of Topologically Close-Packed (TCP) phases, such as the \mu phase (of type Co_7W6 and Co7Mo6) and \sigma phase (pf type Co3W and Co3Mo) \cite{zhangThermodynamicInvestigationPhase2019}, which are intermetallic brittle phases that add strength to the material \cite{yuTriboMechanicalEvaluationsCobaltBased2007, ishidaIntermetallicCompoundsCobase2008} while also promoting crack initiation and propagation \cite{zhaoFirstprinciplesStudyPreferential2023}. Previous work on the Stellite 1 sample by Ahmed et al \cite{ahmedMappingMechanicalProperties2023} indicate that Co6W6C is identified as the main W-rich carbide in Stellite 1, although Co3W3C was also identified inaddition to Co3W and Co7W intermetallics. + + + + +# The carbide formed by W and Mo tends to be the M6C carbide +# \cite{klarstromMetallographyMicrostructuresCobalt2004, antonyWearResistantCobaltBaseAlloys1983} + +# #+CAPTION: Experimental and calculated phase diagram for the Co-Mo system. Reprinted with permission \cite{davydovThermodynamicAssessmentCoMo1999} +# [[file:Figures/Co_Mo_phasediagram_davydovThermodynamicAssessmentCoMo1999.png]] + +# #+CAPTION: Experimental and calculated phase diagram for the Co-Mo-C system. Reprinted with permission \cite{zhangThermodynamicModelingCCoMo2016} +# [[file:Figures/Co_Mo_C_phasediagram_zhangThermodynamicModelingCCoMo2016.png]] + + + +There are two main phases in the tungsten-carbon system: the hexagonal monocarbide $\textrm{WC}$ (ICDD Card# 03-065-4539, COD:2102265), denoted as $\delta-\textrm{WC}$, and multiple variations of hexagonal-close-packed subcarbide $\textrm{W}_2\textrm{C}$ (ICDD:00-002-1134, COD:1539792) \cite{kurlovPhaseEquilibriaWC2006, tulhoffCarbides2000} + +WC carbides precipitate as discrete particles distributed heterogeneously throughout the alloy intragranularly +# There are two hexagonal carbides in the tungsten – carbon system (Fig. 2): the monocarbide, WC, and the subcarbide [12070-13-2], W 2 C. The hexagonal WC, also called a-WC, decomposes at its incongruent melting point of 2776 C. Its range of homogeneity is extremely narrow: from 49.5 to 50.5 mol % C # Several stable tungsten carbide phases in the WC phase diagram. They consist of the S phase with simple hexagonal structure (prototype: WC), γ phase with face-centred-cubic structure (prototype: NaCl), and β phase with hexagonal-close-packed structure (prototype: PbO2). Both β and β phases are nonstoichiometric with a solubility of C wt.% in approximate ranges of 2.2∼3.0 and 3.6∼3.9, respectively. The S phase is a stoichiometric compound. For the sake of convenience, we represent the β, γ and δ phases by their corresponding compounds W2C, WC1-x and WC, respectively. \cite{gubischTribologicalCharacteristicsWC1x2005} The precipitation of the tungsten-rich phase $M_6C$ is closely related to the decomposition of the MC carbide, and the $M_6C$ only occurs in the vicinity of the MC \cite{jiangSecondaryM6CPrecipitation1999}, as $M_6C$ carbides form only when the tungsten and.or molybdenum content exceeds 4-6 a/o. - *** Paragraph: Chromium carbide :ignore_heading: +# The primary M7C3 carbide, found mostly in hypereutectic alloys, has a high melting point among the carbides and therefore, precipitates first during solidification if the carbon content is high enough to favor its formation. +# \cite{klarstromMetallographyMicrostructuresCobalt2004, antonyWearResistantCobaltBaseAlloys1983} + + +Chromium carbides have high hardness and wear resistance, as well as excellent resistance to chemical corrosion, making them often used in surface coatings \cite{liElectronicMechanicalProperties2011} + +In the Cr-C binary phase diagram, there are three phases : cubic Cr23C6 (space group , melting point 1848 K), orthorhombic Cr3C2 (space group Pnma, melting point 2083 K) and Cr7C3 (space group Pnma, melting point 2038 K) \cite{medvedevaStabilityBinaryTernary2015} \cite{liElectronicMechanicalProperties2011} + +The M_23C6 carbides are formed during heat treatment of carbides with a lower M/C ratio or from solid solution close to boundaries \cite{medvedevaStabilityBinaryTernary2015}. Fine M23C6 carbides act as obstacles to gliding of mobile dislocations, which result in long-term creep strength \cite{godecCoarseningBehaviourM23C62016}. + Although M23C6 can precipitate as primary carbide during solidification, it is most commonly found in secondary carbides along grain boundaries. M7C3 is a metastable pseudo-eutectic carbide that typically forms at lower carbon-chromium ratios and effectively transforms into secondary M23C6 upon heat treatment. @@ -611,6 +842,11 @@ $$ 23Cr_{7}C_{3} \rightarrow 7Cr_{23}C_6 + 27C $$ $$ 6C + 23Cr \rightarrow Cr23C6 $$ +# \ce{M_3C -> M_2C -> M_{23}C_6} +# \ce{M_3C -> M_7C_6 -> M_{23}C_6} +# \ce{M_3C -> M_6C} +# \ce{M_3C -> M_23C_6} + *** Paragraph 2: Fundamental Mechanisms of Corrosion and Cavitation Resistance :ignore_heading: @@ -627,93 +863,33 @@ The remarkable ability of Stellite alloys to withstand these specific challenges Antony suggests that the cavitation-erosion resistance of Stellites derives from the matrix phase and is enhanced by the strain-induced fcc \textrightarrow hcp allotropic transformation \cite{antonyWearResistantCobaltBaseAlloys1983}. -*** Paragraph: Lit review of corrosion :ignore_heading: - -The aqueous oxidation of Stellite 6 alloy was investigated in a 1979 study using X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) \cite{mcintyreXRayPhotoelectronSpectroscopic1979}. Specimens were exposed to pH 10 water at 285°C. To understand the oxidation behavior, the study measured dissolved oxygen concentration against exposure duration. - - -The high-temperature corrosion resistance of stellite coatings is attributable to the formation of cobalt & chromium surface \cite{cesanekDeteriorationLocalMechanical2015}. - - -Heathcock et al found that carbides are selectively eroded, with the carbide-matrix interface acting as initiating erosion site \cite{heathcockCavitationErosionCobaltbased1981}. +*** Corrosion resistance of Stellites -*** Paragraph 4: Synergistic Challenges in Applications Prone to Corrosion and Cavitation :ignore: -*** Paragraph 5: Research and Development for Enhanced Corrosion and Cavitation Performance :ignore: -*** Paragraph 6: Influence of HIPing :ignore: - -Compared with the case alloys, the HIPed alloys had relatively finer, rounded, and distributed carbides. +The cavitation erosion of stellites has been investigated in experimental studies \cite{Wang2023, Szala2022741, Mitelea2022967, Liu2022, Sun2021, Szala2021, Zhang2021, Mutascu2019776, Kovalenko2019175, E201890, Ciubotariu2016154, Singh201487, Hattor2014257, Depczynski20131045, Singh2012498, Romo201216, Hattori20091954, Ding201797, Guo2016123, Ciubotariu201698}, along with investigations into cobalt-based alloys \cite{Lavigne2022, Hou2020, Liu2019, Zhang20191060, E2019246, Romero2019581, Romero2019518, Lei20119, Qin2011209, Ding200866, Feng2006558}. -*** Paragraph: Cavitation Erosion Resistance +Stellites achieve oxidation resistance through the formation of a passivating external Cr2O3 scale, due to the high proportion of Cr in their chemical composition \cite{pettitOxidationHotCorrosion1984}. -The primary result of an erosion test is the cumulative mass loss versus time, which is then converted to volumetric loss and mean depth of erosion (MDE) versus time for the purposes of comparison between materials of different densities. The calculation of the mean depth of erosion for this test method should be performed in conformity with ASTM G-32. +as seen by Zhang et al in Green Death solution \cite{zhangPittingCorrosionCharacterization2014}. - -*** General Background -# \section{General Background} - -# Analysis: The paragraph effectively introduces the challenge of cavitation erosion in fluid-handling systems and discusses the need for materials with improved resistance or proposes potential mitigation strategies. - -# Problem Statement: It starts by clearly stating the prevalence and detrimental effects of cavitation (e.g., material erosion, reduced efficiency, noise, vibration, component failure) in key applications (e.g., pumps, propellers, turbines, valves), establishing the necessity for effective solutions. - -# Focus Area / Proposed Solution: It highlights the goal of developing or utilizing materials/coatings/treatments with enhanced cavitation resistance, or introduces specific approaches intended to combat the damage. - -# Mechanism: It explains the fundamental mechanism of cavitation damage (e.g., vapor bubble formation and violent collapse, generation of shockwaves and micro-jets) leading to material erosion, and potentially discusses how a proposed solution resists this mechanism. - -# Context/Validation: It grounds the issue by referencing specific industries or critical components where cavitation erosion is a significant operational problem (e.g., marine propulsion, hydropower generation, hydraulic machinery, chemical processing) and underscores the importance of resistant materials in these contexts. - -# Relevant Properties: It lists specific material characteristics or properties deemed crucial for resisting cavitation erosion (e.g., toughness, hardness, fatigue strength, work-hardening capacity, corrosion resistance, grain structure, phase stability). - -# Knowledge Gap: Critically, it may point out limitations in current materials, testing standards, predictive models, or fundamental understanding, such as predicting erosion rates accurately, performance under combined erosion-corrosion conditions, or the behavior of novel materials. - -# Call for Research/Development: Consequently, it emphasizes the need for further research, development of new materials/coatings, improved testing protocols, or advanced modeling techniques to better predict and mitigate cavitation erosion. - -# Potential Applications: It suggests specific components (e.g., impellers, propellers, valve seats, cylinder liners) or systems that would directly benefit from advancements in cavitation-resistant materials, improving reliability and performance across various sectors. - - -# \chaptermark{Cavitation Erosion} % optional for veryy long chapter, you can rename what appear in the header - -# %% have a mini table of content at the start of the chapter -# { -# \hypersetup{linkcolor=black} -# \minitoc -# } - -%cite:@Franc2004265, @Romo201216, @Kumar2024, @Kim200685, @Gao2024, @20221xix, @Usta2023, @Cheng2023, @Zheng2022 - -Cavitation erosion presents a significant challenge in materials degradation in various industrial sectors, including hydroelectric power, marine propulsion, and nuclear systems, stemming from a complex interaction between fluid dynamics and material response \cite{francCavitationErosion2005, romoCavitationHighvelocitySlurry2012}. Hydrodynamically, the phenomenon initiates with the formation and subsequent violent collapse of vapor bubbles within a liquid, triggered by local pressures dropping to the saturated vapor pressure. These implosions generate intense, localized shockwaves and high-speed microjets that repeatedly impact adjacent solid surfaces \cite{gevariDirectIndirectThermal2020}. From a materials perspective, these impacts induce high stresses (100-1000 MPa) and high strain rates, surpassing material thresholds and leading to damage accumulation via plastic deformation, work hardening, fatigue crack initiation and propagation, and eventual material detachment. Mitigating this requires materials capable of effectively absorbing or resisting this dynamic loading, often under demanding conditions that may also include corrosion. - - -% Martensitic transformation -Crucially, the cobalt matrix often possesses a low stacking fault energy, facilitating a strain-induced martensitic transformation from a metastable face-centered cubic $\gamma$ phase to a hexagonal close-packed $\epsilon$ phase under the intense loading of cavitation. This transformation is a primary mechanism for dissipating impact energy and enhancing work hardening, contributing significantly to Stellite's characteristic cavitation resistance \cite{huangMicrostructureEvolutionMartensite2023, tawancyFccHcpTransformation1986}. - -HIPing is a thermo-mechanical material processing technique which involves the simultaneous application of pressure (up to 200 MPa) and temperature (2000 C), which results in casting densification, porosity closure, and metallurgical bonding. \cite{yuComparisonTriboMechanicalProperties2007} - -While commonly applied via casting or weld overlays, processing routes like Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP) offer potential advantages such as microstructure refinement \cite{stoicaInfluenceHeattreatmentSliding2005} finer microstructures and enhanced fatigue resistance \cite{ahmedInfluenceReHIPingStructure2013, yuComparisonTriboMechanicalProperties2007}. - -HIPing of surface coatings results in microstructure refinement, which can yield improved fatigue and fracture resistance. - -HIPing leads to carbide refinement, which can yield improved impact toughness \cite{yuInfluenceManufacturingProcess2008}, and reduce carbide brittleness \cite{yuComparisonTriboMechanicalProperties2007}. - -Furthermore, HIP facilitates the consolidation of novel 'blended' alloys created from mixed elemental or pre-alloyed powders, providing a pathway to potentially tailor compositions or microstructures for optimized performance. However, despite the prevalence of Stellite alloys and the known influence of processing on microstructure and properties, the specific cavitation erosion behavior of HIP-consolidated Stellites, particularly these blended formulations, remains underexplored in academic literature. Given that erosion mechanisms in Stellites often involve interactions at the carbide-matrix interface \cite{szalaEffectNitrogenIon2021}, understanding how HIP processing and compositional blending affect these interfaces and the matrix's transformative capacity under cavitation, especially when potentially coupled with corrosion, constitutes a critical knowledge gap addressed by this research. - - -% Need to describe Stellite 1 -\section{Stellite 1} - -Stellite 1 is a high-carbon and high-tungsten alloy, making it suitable for demanding applications that require hardness & toughness to combat sliding & abrasive wear \cite{crookCobaltbaseAlloysResist1994} +However, Cr-based carbides may be preferentialy oxidized below the external Cr2O3 scale, particularly at the boundary of carbides which are depleted of Cr \cite{zhangPittingCorrosionCharacterization2014}, where preferential attack of carbides proceed until they have been consumed \cite{pettitOxidationHotCorrosion1984}. -\section{Stellites} -\section{Objectives and Scope of the Research Work} -\section{Thesis Outline} -\section{Literature Survey} -\section{Cavitation Tests} +Lemaire et al \cite{lemaireEvidenceTribocorrosionWear2001} investigated the behavior of Stellite 6 in pressurized high temperature water and proposed an oxidative wear mechanism where wear proceeds by repeated detachment of the surface oxide spontaneously forming on the stellite surface. + +Di Martino et al \cite{dimartinoCorrosionMetalsAlloys2004} also found that the protective chromium-rich film are abraded easily, leading to further corrosion. + + + In such lower-temperature regimes, the passive films formed are typically very thin (in the nanometer range, rather than the micrometer scale observed at high temperatures) + + +Molybdenum and tungsten have favorable effects on the selective oxidation of chromium until chromium has been depleted, at which point molybdenum and tungsten result in increased oxidation due to development of less protective phases \cite{pettitOxidationHotCorrosion1984}. + ** Analytical Investigations # \chapter{Analytical Investigations} @@ -745,6 +921,11 @@ After each cycle, the thickness of the hardened layer $L$ and the surface strain \end{equation} + +# Let's talk more about Woodford +In Woodford's investigations on the $\gamma$\textrrightarrow$\epsilon$ transformation on the surface of cobalt-base alloys during cavitation erosion, the transformed layer was found to extend to a depth of 25 to 50 \um \footnote{Converted from the original 1e-3 to 2e-3 \cite{woodfordCavitationerosionlnducedPhaseTransformations1972}}. + + *** Correlative empirical methods Empirical methods are common for addressing complex cavitation erosion, involving lab tests to correlate cavitation erosion resistance with mechanical properties. @@ -765,40 +946,44 @@ Noskievic formulated a mathematical relaxation model for the dynamics of the cav \end{equation} where $I$ is erosion intensity, which can vary linearly with time, $v = \frac{\mathrm{d} v }{\mathrm{d}t}$ is erosion rate, $\alpha$ is strain hardening or internal friction of material during plastic deformation, and $\beta$ is coefficient inversely proportional to material strength. The general solution of equation can be written as: + +#+BEGIN_EXPORT latex \begin{equation} v = a f_0 \left( \delta, \tau \right) + b f_1 \left( \delta, \tau \right) \end{equation} -\begin{equation*} -f_0\left(\ \delta,\tau \right) = \begin{cases*} + +\begin{equation} +f_0\left(\ \delta,\tau \right) = \left\{ \begin{array}{@{}lr@{}} 1 - \mathrm{exp}{ \left( - \delta \tau \right) } \left[ \dfrac{\delta}{\omega} \mathrm{sin} \left(\omega \tau\right) + \mathrm{cos}{\left( \omega \tau \right)} \right] -& \text{if} -1 < \delta < 1; \delta \neq 0 \\ +& \text{if } -1 < \delta < 1; \delta \neq 0 \\ 1 - \dfrac{1}{ {{\delta_0}^2} - 1} \left[ \delta_0^2 \mathrm{exp}{\left( -\dfrac{\tau}{\delta_0}}\right) - \mathrm{exp}{\left(- \delta_0 \tau\right)} \right] -& \text{if} \delta > 1 \\ +& \text{if } \delta > 1 \\ 1 - \mathrm{cos}{\left( \tau \right)} -& \text{if} \delta = 0 \\ +& \text{if } \delta = 0 \\ 1 - \left(1 + \tau \right) \mathrm{exp} \left( - \tau \right) -& if \delta = 1 -\end{cases*} -\end{equation*} -\begin{equation*} -f_1\left(\ \delta,\tau \right) = \begin{cases*} +& \text{if } \delta = 1 +\end{array} \right\} \\ +\end{equation} +\begin{equation} +f_1\left(\ \delta,\tau \right) = \left\{ \begin{array}{@{}lr@{}} 1 - \dfrac{2\delta}{\tau} \left[ 1 - {\mathrm{exp}\left(-\delta \tau\right)} {\left[ {\mathrm{cos} \omega \tau} + {\epsilon \mathrm{sin} \omega \tau} \right]} \right] -& \text{if} -1 < \delta < 1; \delta \neq 0 \\ -1 - \dfrac{1}{\tau} \left( 2 \delta - \dfrac{1}{\delta_0 \left( \delta_0^2 - 1 \right)} \left[\mathrm{exp}{\left( -\delta_0 \tau \right) - \delta^4 \mathrm{exp}{\left( - \dfrac{\tau}{\delta_0} \right)} \right] \right) -& \text{if} \delta > 1 \\ +& \text{if } -1 < \delta < 1; \delta \neq 0 \\ +1 - \dfrac{1}{\tau} \left( 2 \delta - \dfrac{1}{\delta_0 \left( \delta_0^2 - 1 \right)} \left[\mathrm{exp}{\left( -\delta_0 \tau \right) - \delta^4 \mathrm{exp}{\left( \dfrac{-\tau}{\delta_0} \right)} \right] \right) +& \text{if } \delta > 1 \\ 1 - \dfrac{ \mathrm{sin}{\left( \tau \right)} }{\tau} -& \text{if} \delta = 0 \\ +& \text{if } \delta = 0 \\ 1 - \dfrac{2 \left[ 1 - \mathrm{exp}\left(-\tau\right) \right]}{\tau} + \mathrm{exp} \left( - \tau \right) -& if \delta = 1 -\end{cases*} -\end{equation*} -\begin{equation*} +& \text{if } \delta = 1 +\end{array} \right\} +\end{equation} +\begin{equation} \delta = \dfrac{\alpha}{\beta},\quad \tau = \beta t,\quad \epsilon = \dfrac{\delta^2 - 0.5}{\delta \sqrt{ 1 - \delta^2 } },\quad \omega = \sqrt{1 - \delta^2},\quad \delta_0 = \delta + \sqrt{ \delta^2 - 1 } -\end{equation*} +\end{equation} +#+END_EXPORT ***** Noskievic python function :noexport:ignore: @@ -901,6 +1086,25 @@ t_o > 0 ** Experimental Investigations + +*** Materials and Microstructure + +# Alternatively say industrially optimized parameters rather than saying the temp amd pressure +The HIPed Stellite 1 alloys were manufactured by canning the gas-atomized powders, manufactured by Deloro Stellite (UK), at a temperature and pressure of 1200C and 100 MPa, for 4 hours in a HIPing vessel where the chemical composition and sieve analysis have been reported in previous work by Ahmed et al \cite{ahmedInfluenceAlloyComposition2025}. + +The sieve analysis of these powders indicate that the majority of powder particles were in the size range of 45 to 180 um. + +The cast alloy samples were produced via sand casting process. + +| | Co | Cr | W | Mo | C | Fe | Ni | Si | Mn | +| HIPed Stellite 1 | Bal. | 31.70 | 12.70 | 0.29 | 2.47 | 2.30 | 2.38 | 1.06 | 0.26 | + + + +| | +250 | +180 | +125 | +45 | -45 | +| HIPed Stellite 1 | 0.10 | 2.40 | 47.90 | 49.50 | 0.10 | + + *** Materials and Microstructure The HIPed alloy was produced via canning the gas-atomized powders at 1200C and 100 MPa pressure for 4h, while the cast alloys were produced via sand casting. @@ -925,6 +1129,187 @@ Image analysis was also conducted to ascertain the volume fractions of individua The Vickers microhardness was measured using a Wilson hardness tester under loads of BLAH. Thirty measurements under each load were conducted on each sample. +*** Paragraph XRD: Experimental determination of $\epsilon-Co$ :ignore_heading: + + + +The microstructure phase identification was investigated out using X-ray diffraction technique with Cu-K$\alpha$ radiation ($\lambda = 1.5406 \AA{}$). +The volume fraction of \epsilon-Co can be determined using the intensity of the $(200)_{\gamma}$ and $(10\bar{1}1)_{hcp}$ peaks, using the following equation proposed by Sage and Guillaud: + +\begin{equation} +\textrm{hcp} (\textrm{vol}\%) = \frac{I(10\bar{1}1)_{\epsilon}}{I(10\bar{1}1)_{\epsilon} + 1.5I(200)_{\gamma}} +\end{equation} + + +# HCP (vol\%) the volume fraction of the martensitic $\epsilon-Co$ phase +# I(10\bar{1}1)_{\epsilon} is the integrated intensity of the martensite peak +# I(200)_{\gamma} is the integrated intensity of the austenite peak + + +*** Experimental determination of SFE + +To experimentally determine the SFE, the XRD method proposed by Reed and Schramm was employed \cite{reedRelationshipStackingfaultEnergy1974}: + +\begin{equation} +SFE = \frac{K_{111} \omega_0 G_{111} a_0}{\pi \sqrt{3}} \frac{{<\epsilon_{50\AA}^2>}_{111}}{\alpha} A^{-0.37} +\end{equation} + +where: + + +\begin{equation} +K_{111}\omega_0 &= 6.6 \\ +G_{111} = \frac{1}{3}\frac{1}{C_{44} + C_{11} - C_{12}} +A &= \frac{1 C_{44}}{C_{11}-C_{12}} +\end{equation} + + +ployed \cite{reedRelationshipStackingfaultEnergy1974}: + +$SFE$ = stacking fault energy $\frac{mJ}{m^2}$ +$K_{111}\omega_0$ = 6.6, as obtained by +$A$ is the Zener elastic anisotropy +$C_{ij}$ are elastic stiffness coefficients +$G_{111}$ is the shear modulus of the (111)-plane, in which stacking faults are formed +$a_0$ is the lattic constant of the fcc-metal matrix +${<\epsilon^2_{111}>}_{50\AA}$ is thr root mean square microstrain in the <111> direction averaged over the distance of $50 \AA$ +$\alpha$ is stacking fault probability + +**** Elastic constant + + + + +*** Microhardness :ignore_heading: + +# Yeah, I'm heavily assuming that the University of Sharjah lab is still open, ooof. +Microhardness measurements were taken on the surfaces of the as-cast and HIPed samples. The Wilson Tukon 1102 hardness tester was used for Vickers microhardness testing with a load of 300 grams (HV_{0.3}) for 10s, and averaged by using ten individual indentations. The specimen surface was prepared in the same fashion as for microstructural analysis. + +Previous work + +*** Indentation fracture toughness :ignore_heading: + +The indentation fracture toughness was made with hardness equipment (AVK-A, AKASHI) at a load of 49 N for 10 s, and the value was obtained from five measurements on the cross section. The fracture toughness was evaluated based to the Evans-Wilshaw equation [21, 22]. + +\begin{equation} +K_{IC} = 0.079 {\left( \frac{P}{a^{\frac{3}{2}}} \right)}log{\left(\frac{4.5 a }{c}\right)} +\end{equation} + +where $P$ is indenter load $[\textrm{mN}]$, $2c$ is the crack length $\left[\mu\textrm{m}\right]$, and $2a$ is the length of indentation diagonal $\left[\mu\textrm{m}\right]$ + + +*** Electrochemical instrument and experiments + +A Corrtest potentiostat was used for electrochemical experiments in a conventional three electrode cell, with the sample as working electrode with exposed area 2cm2, a saturated calomel electrode (SCE) as reference electrode, and a Pt plate as counterelectrode. + +All electrochemical experiments were performed at room temperature. + +# Need to convince Dr Rehan to use cyclic voltametry +The open circuit potential was continuously recorded for 1 h, before the electrical impedence spectroscopy (EIS), LPR, and cyclic voltametry experiments. + + + + +**** Cavitation Erosion Test Apparatus :ignore_heading: + +A magnetostrictive vibratory apparatus, operating in general accordance with ASTM Standard G32, was utilized. The system functioned at an ultrasonic frequency of 20 kHz, with a peak-to-peak displacement amplitude of the horn tip maintained at 96 µm. The horn, fabricated from a cavitation-resistant titanium alloy, featured a flat tip of 16 mm diameter. Experiments were conducted using a stationary specimen configuration, with the specimen positioned 0.5 mm below the vibrating horn tip, this distance being precisely set using a dial gauge. + + +**** Paragraph: Lit review of corrosion :ignore_heading: + +The aqueous oxidation of Stellite 6 alloy was investigated in a 1979 study using X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) \cite{mcintyreXRayPhotoelectronSpectroscopic1979}. Specimens were exposed to pH 10 water at 285°C. To understand the oxidation behavior, the study measured dissolved oxygen concentration against exposure duration. + + +The high-temperature corrosion resistance of stellite coatings is attributable to the formation of cobalt & chromium surface \cite{cesanekDeteriorationLocalMechanical2015}. + + +Heathcock et al found that carbides are selectively eroded, with the carbide-matrix interface acting as initiating erosion site \cite{heathcockCavitationErosionCobaltbased1981}. + + + +**** Paragraph 4: Synergistic Challenges in Applications Prone to Corrosion and Cavitation :ignore: +**** Paragraph 5: Research and Development for Enhanced Corrosion and Cavitation Performance :ignore: +**** Paragraph 6: Influence of HIPing :ignore: + +Compared with the case alloys, the HIPed alloys had relatively finer, rounded, and distributed carbides. + + +**** Paragraph: Cavitation Erosion Resistance + + +The primary result of an erosion test is the cumulative mass loss versus time, which is then converted to volumetric loss and mean depth of erosion (MDE) versus time for the purposes of comparison between materials of different densities. The calculation of the mean depth of erosion for this test method should be performed in conformity with ASTM G-32. + + +**** General Background +# \section{General Background} + +# Analysis: The paragraph effectively introduces the challenge of cavitation erosion in fluid-handling systems and discusses the need for materials with improved resistance or proposes potential mitigation strategies. + +# Problem Statement: It starts by clearly stating the prevalence and detrimental effects of cavitation (e.g., material erosion, reduced efficiency, noise, vibration, component failure) in key applications (e.g., pumps, propellers, turbines, valves), establishing the necessity for effective solutions. + +# Focus Area / Proposed Solution: It highlights the goal of developing or utilizing materials/coatings/treatments with enhanced cavitation resistance, or introduces specific approaches intended to combat the damage. + +# Mechanism: It explains the fundamental mechanism of cavitation damage (e.g., vapor bubble formation and violent collapse, generation of shockwaves and micro-jets) leading to material erosion, and potentially discusses how a proposed solution resists this mechanism. + +# Context/Validation: It grounds the issue by referencing specific industries or critical components where cavitation erosion is a significant operational problem (e.g., marine propulsion, hydropower generation, hydraulic machinery, chemical processing) and underscores the importance of resistant materials in these contexts. + +# Relevant Properties: It lists specific material characteristics or properties deemed crucial for resisting cavitation erosion (e.g., toughness, hardness, fatigue strength, work-hardening capacity, corrosion resistance, grain structure, phase stability). + +# Knowledge Gap: Critically, it may point out limitations in current materials, testing standards, predictive models, or fundamental understanding, such as predicting erosion rates accurately, performance under combined erosion-corrosion conditions, or the behavior of novel materials. + +# Call for Research/Development: Consequently, it emphasizes the need for further research, development of new materials/coatings, improved testing protocols, or advanced modeling techniques to better predict and mitigate cavitation erosion. + +# Potential Applications: It suggests specific components (e.g., impellers, propellers, valve seats, cylinder liners) or systems that would directly benefit from advancements in cavitation-resistant materials, improving reliability and performance across various sectors. + + +# \chaptermark{Cavitation Erosion} % optional for veryy long chapter, you can rename what appear in the header + +# %% have a mini table of content at the start of the chapter +# { +# \hypersetup{linkcolor=black} +# \minitoc +# } + +%cite:@Franc2004265, @Romo201216, @Kumar2024, @Kim200685, @Gao2024, @20221xix, @Usta2023, @Cheng2023, @Zheng2022 + +Cavitation erosion presents a significant challenge in materials degradation in various industrial sectors, including hydroelectric power, marine propulsion, and nuclear systems, stemming from a complex interaction between fluid dynamics and material response \cite{francCavitationErosion2005, romoCavitationHighvelocitySlurry2012}. Hydrodynamically, the phenomenon initiates with the formation and subsequent violent collapse of vapor bubbles within a liquid, triggered by local pressures dropping to the saturated vapor pressure. These implosions generate intense, localized shockwaves and high-speed microjets that repeatedly impact adjacent solid surfaces \cite{gevariDirectIndirectThermal2020}. From a materials perspective, these impacts induce high stresses (100-1000 MPa) and high strain rates, surpassing material thresholds and leading to damage accumulation via plastic deformation, work hardening, fatigue crack initiation and propagation, and eventual material detachment. Mitigating this requires materials capable of effectively absorbing or resisting this dynamic loading, often under demanding conditions that may also include corrosion. + + +% Martensitic transformation +Crucially, the cobalt matrix often possesses a low stacking fault energy, facilitating a strain-induced martensitic transformation from a metastable face-centered cubic $\gamma$ phase to a hexagonal close-packed $\epsilon$ phase under the intense loading of cavitation. This transformation is a primary mechanism for dissipating impact energy and enhancing work hardening, contributing significantly to Stellite's characteristic cavitation resistance \cite{huangMicrostructureEvolutionMartensite2023, tawancyFccHcpTransformation1986}. + +HIPing is a thermo-mechanical material processing technique which involves the simultaneous application of pressure (up to 200 MPa) and temperature (2000 C), which results in casting densification, porosity closure, and metallurgical bonding. \cite{yuComparisonTriboMechanicalProperties2007} + +While commonly applied via casting or weld overlays, processing routes like Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP) offer potential advantages such as microstructure refinement \cite{stoicaInfluenceHeattreatmentSliding2005} finer microstructures and enhanced fatigue resistance \cite{ahmedInfluenceReHIPingStructure2013, yuComparisonTriboMechanicalProperties2007}. + +HIPing of surface coatings results in microstructure refinement, which can yield improved fatigue and fracture resistance. + +HIPing leads to carbide refinement, which can yield improved impact toughness \cite{yuInfluenceManufacturingProcess2008}, and reduce carbide brittleness \cite{yuComparisonTriboMechanicalProperties2007}. + +Furthermore, HIP facilitates the consolidation of novel 'blended' alloys created from mixed elemental or pre-alloyed powders, providing a pathway to potentially tailor compositions or microstructures for optimized performance. However, despite the prevalence of Stellite alloys and the known influence of processing on microstructure and properties, the specific cavitation erosion behavior of HIP-consolidated Stellites, particularly these blended formulations, remains underexplored in academic literature. Given that erosion mechanisms in Stellites often involve interactions at the carbide-matrix interface \cite{szalaEffectNitrogenIon2021}, understanding how HIP processing and compositional blending affect these interfaces and the matrix's transformative capacity under cavitation, especially when potentially coupled with corrosion, constitutes a critical knowledge gap addressed by this research. + + +% Need to describe Stellite 1 +\section{Stellite 1} + +Stellite 1 is a high-carbon and high-tungsten alloy, making it suitable for demanding applications that require hardness & toughness to combat sliding & abrasive wear \cite{crookCobaltbaseAlloysResist1994} + + + + +\section{Stellites} +\section{Objectives and Scope of the Research Work} +\section{Thesis Outline} +\section{Literature Survey} +\section{Cavitation Tests} + + +*** COMMENT Cavitation erosion mechanisms based on erosion particles + + + + + ** Discussion # \chapter{Discussion} @@ -956,6 +1341,7 @@ Maximum erosion rate is approximately proportional to the 1.5 power of p-p ampli The propagation of ultrasonic waves may result in thermal energy absorption or into chemical energy, resulting in reduced power. For the purposes of converting data from studies that do not use an amplitude of 50um, a exponent factor of 1.5 has been applied. + * COMMENT Appendix :ignore_heading: #+LaTeX: \appendix diff --git a/Thesis.pdf b/Thesis.pdf index 9e9e66c..876fd04 100644 --- a/Thesis.pdf +++ b/Thesis.pdf @@ -1,3 +1,3 @@ version https://git-lfs.github.com/spec/v1 -oid sha256:e45807ab4f51f3d906e0a3ac291b9ff107a7b79155ee702f085c6d6495bdeb05 -size 242457 +oid sha256:f1cacc5dcbdc35033848ad3d50ac2dc2670db81615401f25a8d5dfc68c930d98 +size 266095 diff --git a/Thesis.tex b/Thesis.tex index be3040a..09bf1c8 100644 --- a/Thesis.tex +++ b/Thesis.tex @@ -1,4 +1,4 @@ -% Created 2025-05-12 ن 08:48 +% Created 2025-05-18 ح 22:01 % Intended LaTeX compiler: pdflatex \documentclass[11pt]{report} \usepackage[utf8]{inputenc} @@ -17,7 +17,8 @@ \usepackage{pdflscape} \usepackage{booktabs,caption} \usepackage{longtable} -\usepackage[flushleft]{threeparttable} +\usepackage{makecell} +\usepackage[flushleft]{threeparttablex} \usepackage{multirow} \usepackage{caption} \usepackage{booktabs} % Added for nicer rules @@ -298,30 +299,44 @@ I don't what it is actually. \clearpage \pagestyle{chapter} \part{Chapters} -\label{sec:orga0be3a3} +\label{sec:orgaa95b84} \chapter{Introduction} -\label{sec:org4e058f3} +\label{sec:orge169811} + +\section{Paragraph: Introduction to Stellite Alloys for Hostile Environments\hfill{}\textsc{ignore\_heading}} +\label{sec:org2a989c2} + +Stellites are a family of cobalt-base superalloys used in aggresive service environments due to retention of strength, wear resistance, and oxidation resistance at high temperature \cite{ahmedStructurePropertyRelationships2014, shinEffectMolybdenumMicrostructure2003}. Starting with Elwood Haynes's development of alloys like Stellite 6 in the early 1900s \cite{hasanBasicsStellitesMachining2016}, stellites became critical to components used in medical implants \& tools, machine tools, and nuclear components, and new variations on the original CoCrWC and CoCrMoC alloys see expanding use in sectors like oil \& gas and chemical processing \cite{malayogluComparingPerformanceHIPed2003, ahmedStructurePropertyRelationships2014, raghuRecentDevelopmentsWear1997}. - - -Stellites are cobalt-base superalloys used in aggresive service environments due to retention of strength, wear resistance, and oxidation resistance at high temperature \cite{ahmedStructurePropertyRelationships2014, shinEffectMolybdenumMicrostructure2003}. Originating with Elwood Haynes's development of alloys like Stellite 6 in the early 1900s \cite{hasanBasicsStellitesMachining2016}, stellites quickly found use in medical implants \& tools, machine tools, and nuclear components, and new variations on the original CoCrWC and CoCrMoC alloys are spreading to new sectors like oil \& gas and chemical processing \cite{malayogluComparingPerformanceHIPed2003, ahmedStructurePropertyRelationships2014, raghuRecentDevelopmentsWear1997}. - - -The main alloying elements in Stellite alloys are cobalt (Co), chromium (25-33 wt\% Cr), tungsten (0-18 wt\% W), molybdenum (0-18 wt\% Mo), carbon (0.1-3.3 wt\% C), and trace elements iron (Fe), nickel (Ni), silicon (Si), phosphorus (P), sulphur (S), boron (B), lanthanum (La), \& manganese (Mn); \tref{tab:stellite_composition} summarizes the nominal and measured composition of commonly used Stellite alloys \cite{ahmedMappingMechanicalProperties2023, alimardaniEffectLocalizedDynamic2010, ashworthMicrostructurePropertyRelationships1999, bunchCorrosionGallingResistant1989, davis2000nickel, desaiEffectCarbideSize1984, ferozhkhanMetallurgicalStudyStellite2017, pacquentinTemperatureInfluenceRepair2025, ratiaComparisonSlidingWear2019, zhangFrictionWearCharacterization2002}. Stellite alloys possess a composite-like microstructure, combining a cobalt-rich matrix strengthened by solid solutions of chromium, tungsten, \& molybdenum, with hard carbide phases with carbide formers Cr (of carbide type \(\textrm{M}_{7}\textrm{C}_{3}\) \& \(\textrm{M}_{23}\textrm{C}_{6}\)) and W/Mo (of carbide type \(\textrm{MC}\) \& \(\textrm{M}_{6}\textrm{C}\)), that impede wear and crack propagation \cite{ahmedSlidingWearBlended2021a, crookCobaltbaseAlloysResist1994}. The proportion and type of carbides depend on carbon content and the relative amounts of carbon with carbide formers (Cr, W, Mo), which greatly influence alloy performance and intended applications; high carbon alloy (>1.2 wt\%) have greater carbide formation and are primarily used for wear resistance, low carbon alloys (<0.5 wt\%) are used for enhanced corrosion resistance, while medium carbon alloys (0.5 wt\% - 1.2 wt\%) are used in applications requiring a combination of wear and corrosion resistance \cite{davis2000nickel}. +The main alloying elements in Stellite alloys are cobalt (Co), chromium (25-33 wt\% Cr), tungsten (0-18 wt\% W), molybdenum (0-18 wt\% Mo), carbon (0.1-3.3 wt\% C), and trace elements iron (Fe), nickel (Ni), silicon (Si), phosphorus (P), sulphur (S), boron (B), lanthanum (La), \& manganese (Mn); \tref{tab:stellite_composition} summarizes the nominal and measured composition of commonly used Stellite alloys \cite{ahmedMappingMechanicalProperties2023, alimardaniEffectLocalizedDynamic2010, ashworthMicrostructurePropertyRelationships1999, bunchCorrosionGallingResistant1989, davis2000nickel, desaiEffectCarbideSize1984, ferozhkhanMetallurgicalStudyStellite2017, pacquentinTemperatureInfluenceRepair2025, ratiaComparisonSlidingWear2019, zhangFrictionWearCharacterization2002}. Stellite alloys possess a composite-like microstructure, combining a cobalt-rich matrix strengthened by solid solutions of chromium, tungsten, \& molybdenum, with embedded hard carbide phases with carbide formers Cr (of carbide type \(\textrm{M}_{7}\textrm{C}_{3}\) \& \(\textrm{M}_{23}\textrm{C}_{6}\)) and W/Mo (of carbide type \(\textrm{MC}\) \& \(\textrm{M}_{6}\textrm{C}\)), that impede wear and crack propagation \cite{ahmedSlidingWearBlended2021a, crookCobaltbaseAlloysResist1994}. \afterpage{% \begin{landscape} \begin{ThreePartTable} + +%\renewcommand\TPTminimum{\pageheight} +%% Arrange for "longtable" to take up full width of text block +%\setlength\LTleft{0pt} +%\setlength\LTright{0pt} +%\setlength\tabcolsep{0pt} + +\begin{TableNotes} + \small + \item[a] Hot Isostatic Pressing + \item[b] Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy + \item[c] Shielded metal arc welding + \item[d] Gas tungsten Arc Welding + \item[e] Plasma transfered Arc Welding +\end{TableNotes} + \caption{Stellite Compositions} \label{tab:stellite_composition} \begin{longtable}{l|ll|ll|l|llllllll|lll} -% \toprule & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Base} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Refractory} & Carbon & \multicolumn{8}{c}{Others} & \multicolumn{3}{c}{} \\ - \toprule \textbf{Alloy} & \textbf{Co} & \textbf{Cr} & \textbf{W} & \textbf{Mo} & \textbf{C} & \textbf{Fe} & @@ -333,12 +348,10 @@ The main alloying elements in Stellite alloys are cobalt (Co), chromium (25-33 w & 47.7 & 30 & 13 & 0.5 & 2.5 & 3 & 1.5 & 1.3 & & & & & 0.5 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\ & 48.6 & 33 & 12.5 & 0 & 2.5 & 1 & 1 & 1.3 & & & & & 0.1 & \cite{alimardaniEffectLocalizedDynamic2010} & & \\ & 46.84 & 31.7 & 12.7 & 0.29 & 2.47 & 2.3 & 2.38 & 1.06 & & & & & 0.26 & \cite{ahmedMappingMechanicalProperties2023} & HIPed\tnote{a} & ICP-OES\tnote{b} \\ - \midrule \multirow{2}{*}{Stellite 3} & 50.5 & 33 & 14 & & 2.5 & & & & & & & & & \cite{bunchCorrosionGallingResistant1989} & & \\ & 49.24 & 29.57 & 12.07 & 0.67 & 2.52 & 2.32 & 1.07 & 1.79 & & & & & 0.75 & \cite{ratiaComparisonSlidingWear2019} & HIPed\tnote{a} & ICP-OES\tnote{b} \\ - \midrule \multirow{5}{*}{Stellite 4} & 45.43 & 30 & 14 & 1 & 0.57 & 3 & 3 & 2 & & & & & 1 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\ @@ -346,7 +359,6 @@ The main alloying elements in Stellite alloys are cobalt (Co), chromium (25-33 w & 51.9 & 33 & 14 & & 1.1 & & & & & & & & & \cite{bunchCorrosionGallingResistant1989} & & \\ & 49.41 & 31 & 14 & 0.12 & 0.67 & 2.16 & 1.82 & 1.04 & & & & & 0.26 & \cite{ahmedMappingMechanicalProperties2023} & HIPed\tnote{a} & ICP-OES\tnote{b} \\ & 50.2 & 29.8 & 14.4 & 0 & 0.7 & 1.9 & 1.9 & 0.8 & & & & & 0.3 & \cite{ashworthMicrostructurePropertyRelationships1999} & HIPed\tnote{a} & \\ - \midrule \multirow{10}{*}{Stellite 6} & 51.5 & 28.5 & 4.5 & 1.5 & 1 & 5 & 3 & 2 & & & 1 & & 2 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\ @@ -359,15 +371,13 @@ The main alloying elements in Stellite alloys are cobalt (Co), chromium (25-33 w & 52.40 & 30.37 & 3.57 & & 0.96 & 6.46 & 3.93 & 1.70 & 0.01 & 0.01 & & & 0.3 & \cite{ferozhkhanMetallurgicalStudyStellite2017} & SMAW\tnote{c} & OES \\ & 60.3 & & 31.10 & 4.70 & 0.30 & 1.10 & 1.70 & 1.50 & 1.30 & & 0.00 & & 0.3 & \cite{pacquentinTemperatureInfluenceRepair2025} & LP-DED & ICP-AES \& GDMS \\ & 60.6 & 27.7 & 5 & 0 & 1.2 & 1.9 & 2 & 1.3 & & & & & 0.3 & \cite{ashworthMicrostructurePropertyRelationships1999} & HIPed\tnote{a} & \\ - % \midrule % Stellite 7 % & 64 & 25.9 & 4.9 & 0 & 0.5 & 1.5 & 1.1 & 1.1 & & & & & 1 & \cite{ashworthMicrostructurePropertyRelationships1999} & HIPed\tnote{a} & \\ - \midrule \multirow{2}{*}{Stellite 12} & 53.6 & 30 & 8.3 & & 1.4 & 3 & 1.5 & 0.7 & & & & & 1.5 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\ -& 55.22 & 29.65 & 8.15 & 0.2 & 1.49 & 2.07 & 2.04 & 0.91 & & & & & 0.27 & \cite{ahmedMappingMechanicalProperties2023} & HIPed\tnote{a} & ICP-OES \\ +& 55.22 & 29.65 & 8.15 & 0.2 & 1.49 & 2.07 & 2.04 & 0.91 & & & & & 0.27 & \cite{ahmedMappingMechanicalProperties2023} & HIPed\tnote{a} & ICP-OES\tnote{b} \\ \midrule Stellite 19 @@ -376,111 +386,58 @@ Stellite 19 \midrule \multirow{2}{*}{Stellite 20} & 41.05 & 33 & 17.5 & & 2.45 & 2.5 & 2.5 & & & & & & 1 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\ -& 43.19 & 31.85 & 16.3 & 0.27 & 2.35 & 2.5 & 2.28 & 1 & & & & & 0.26 & \cite{ahmedMappingMechanicalProperties2023} & HIPed\tnote{a} & ICP-OES \\ - +& 43.19 & 31.85 & 16.3 & 0.27 & 2.35 & 2.5 & 2.28 & 1 & & & & & 0.26 & \cite{ahmedMappingMechanicalProperties2023} & HIPed\tnote{a} & ICP-OES\tnote{b} \\ \midrule \multirow{2}{*}{Stellite 21} & 59.493 & 27 & & 5.5 & 0.25 & 3 & 2.75 & 1 & & & 0.007 & & 1 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\ & 60.6 & 26.9 & 0 & 5.7 & 0.2 & 1.3 & 2.7 & 1.9 & & & & & 0.7 & \cite{ashworthMicrostructurePropertyRelationships1999} & HIPed\tnote{a} & \\ - -% \midrule -% Stellite 22 -% & 54 & 27 & & 11 & 0.25 & 3 & 2.75 & 1 & & & & & 1 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\ - -% \midrule -% Stellite 23 -% & 65.5 & 24 & 5 & & 0.4 & 1 & 2 & 0.6 & & & & & 0.3 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\ - -% \midrule -% Stellite 25 -% & 49.4 & 20 & 15 & & 0.1 & 3 & 10 & 1 & & & & & 1.5 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\ - -% \midrule -% Stellite 27 -% & 35 & 25 & & 5.5 & 0.4 & 1 & 32 & 0.6 & & & & & 0.3 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\ - -% \midrule -% Stellite 30 -% & 50.5 & 26 & & 6 & 0.45 & 1 & 15 & 0.6 & & & & & 0.6 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\ - \midrule \multirow{2}{*}{Stellite 31} & 57.5 & 22 & 7.5 & & 0.5 & 1.5 & 10 & 0.5 & & & & & 0.5 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\ & 52.9 & 25.3 & 7.8 & 0 & 0.5 & 1.1 & 11.4 & 0.6 & & & & & 0.4 & \cite{ashworthMicrostructurePropertyRelationships1999} & HIPed\tnote{a} & \\ - -% \midrule -% Stellite 80 -% & 44.6 & 33.5 & 19 & & 1.9 & & & & & & 1 & & & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\ - -% \midrule -% Stellite 188 -% & 37.27 & 22 & 14 & & 0.1 & 3 & 22 & 0.35 & & & & 0.03 & 1.25 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\ - \midrule \multirow{2}{*}{Stellite 190} & 46.7 & 27 & 14 & 1 & 3.3 & 3 & 3 & 1 & & & & & 1 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\ & 48.72 & 27.25 & 14.4 & 0.2 & 3.21 & 2.1 & 2.81 & 1 & & & & & 0.31 & \cite{ahmedMappingMechanicalProperties2023} -& HIPed\tnote{a} & ICP-OES\tnote{*} \\ +& HIPed\tnote{a} & ICP-OES\tnote{b} \\ -% \midrule -% Stellite 300 -% & 44.5 & 22 & 32 & & 1.5 & & & & & & & & & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\ - -% \midrule -% Stellite 694 -% & 45 & 28 & 19 & & 1 & 5 & & 1 & & & & & 1 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\ - -% \midrule -% Stellite 703 -% & 44.6 & 32 & & 12 & 2.4 & 3 & 3 & 1.5 & & & & & 1.5 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\ - -% \midrule -% Stellite 706 -% & 55.8 & 29 & & 5 & 1.2 & 3 & 3 & 1.5 & & & & & 1.5 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\ - -% \midrule -% Stellite 712 -% & 51.5 & 29 & & 8.5 & 2 & 3 & 3 & 1.5 & & & & & 1.5 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\ - -% \midrule -% Stellite 720 -% & 37.2 & 33 & & 18 & 2.5 & 3 & 3 & 1.5 & & & 0.3 & & 1.5 & \cite{davis2000nickel} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Nominal composition} \\ \end{longtable} -\begin{tablenotes} - \small - \item[a] Hot Isostatic Pressing - \item[b] Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy - \item[c] Shielded metal arc welding - \item[d] Gas tungsten Arc Welding - \item[e] Plasma transfered Arc Welding -\end{tablenotes} \end{ThreePartTable} \end{landscape} } +\section{Role of HIPping vs as Cast} +\label{sec:org132e0e9} +\section{Paragraph: Tungsten and Molybdenum carbides} +\label{sec:org329ec73} + +Tungsten (W) and molybdenum (Mo) are refractory elements that provide solid solution strengthening to the matrix, by virtue of their large atomic size that impedes dislocation flow when present as solute atoms \cite{boeckRelationshipsProcessingMicrostructure1985}, and also form \(\textrm{M}_6\textrm{C}\) and \(\textrm{M}_12\textrm{C}\) carbides along with \(\textrm{MC}\) carbides and \(\textrm{Co}_3\textrm{M}\) \& \(\textrm{Co}_7\textrm{M}_6\) intermetallics during solidification. + +In carbon-rich regions, the \(\textrm{MC}\) phase (of type \(\textrm{WC}\) and \(\textrm{MoC}\)) is observed \cite{zhangThermodynamicInvestigationPhase2019}, which ca + + +In carbon-poor regions, ternary \(\textrm{M}_6\textrm{C}\) and \(\textrm{M}_{12}\textrm{C}\) carbides have been identified, where the \(\textrm{M}_6\textrm{C}\) carbide (of type \(\textrm{Co}_3\textrm{Mo}_3\textrm{C}\)) is stable in the temperature ranges of 900C to 1300C and can vary in composition from Mo\textsubscript{40}\textsubscript{Co}\textsubscript{46C}\textsubscript{14} to Mo56Co30C14, while the \(Mo_12C\) carbide of type (\(Co6Mo6C\) carbide decomposes into \(Mo_6C\) and \(\mu-Mo\) phases above 1100C \cite{zhangThermodynamicModelingCCoMo2016}. + +When present in large quantities, W and Mo also participate in formation of W-rich or Mo-rich carbides during alloy solidification \cite{davis2000nickel, raghuRecentDevelopmentsWear1997}, + +leading to generation of Topologically Close-Packed (TCP) phases, such as the \(\mu\) phase (of type Co\textsubscript{7W6} and Co7Mo6) and \(\sigma\) phase (pf type Co3W and Co3Mo) \cite{zhangThermodynamicInvestigationPhase2019}, which are intermetallic brittle phases that add strength to the material \cite{yuTriboMechanicalEvaluationsCobaltBased2007, ishidaIntermetallicCompoundsCobase2008} while also promoting crack initiation and propagation \cite{zhaoFirstprinciplesStudyPreferential2023}. Previous work on the Stellite 1 sample by Ahmed et al \cite{ahmedMappingMechanicalProperties2023} indicate that Co6W6C is identified as the main W-rich carbide in Stellite 1, although Co3W3C was also identified inaddition to Co3W and Co7W intermetallics. +There are two main phases in the tungsten-carbon system: the hexagonal monocarbide \(\textrm{WC}\) (ICDD Card\# 03-065-4539, COD:2102265), denoted as \(\delta-\textrm{WC}\), and multiple variations of hexagonal-close-packed subcarbide \(\textrm{W}_2\textrm{C}\) (ICDD:00-002-1134, COD:1539792) \cite{kurlovPhaseEquilibriaWC2006, tulhoffCarbides2000} -The Co solid solution in Stellites is a metastable fcc crystal with a very low stacking fault energy. - -\cite{davis2000nickel, frenkMicrostructuralEffectsSliding1994} - - - -Tungsten (W) and molybdenum (Mo) serve to provide additional strength to the matrix, when present in a small amount (<4 wt\%), by virtue of their large atomic size that impedes dislocation flow when present as solute atoms. When present in large quantities, W and Mo also participate in formation of W-rich or Mo-rich carbides during alloy solidification - -\cite{davis2000nickel} -\cite{raghuRecentDevelopmentsWear1997} - - -There are two main phases in the tungsten-carbon system: the hexagonal \(\textrm{WC}\) (ICDD Card\# 03-065-4539, COD:2102265), denoted as \(\delta-\textrm{WC}\), and multiple variations of hexagonal-close-packed \textrm{W}\textsubscript{2\textrm}\{C\}\$ (ICDD:00-002-1134, COD:1539792) \cite{kurlovPhaseEquilibriaWC2006}. +WC carbides precipitate as discrete particles distributed heterogeneously throughout the alloy intragranularly The precipitation of the tungsten-rich phase \(M_6C\) is closely related to the decomposition of the MC carbide, and the \(M_6C\) only occurs in the vicinity of the MC \cite{jiangSecondaryM6CPrecipitation1999}, as \(M_6C\) carbides form only when the tungsten and.or molybdenum content exceeds 4-6 a/o. +Chromium carbides have high hardness and wear resistance, as well as excellent resistance to chemical corrosion, making them often used in surface coatings \cite{liElectronicMechanicalProperties2011} + +In the Cr-C binary phase diagram, there are three phases : cubic Cr23C6 (space group , melting point 1848 K), orthorhombic Cr3C2 (space group Pnma, melting point 2083 K) and Cr7C3 (space group Pnma, melting point 2038 K) \cite{medvedevaStabilityBinaryTernary2015} \cite{liElectronicMechanicalProperties2011} + +The M\textsubscript{23C6} carbides are formed during heat treatment of carbides with a lower M/C ratio or from solid solution close to boundaries \cite{medvedevaStabilityBinaryTernary2015}. Fine M23C6 carbides act as obstacles to gliding of mobile dislocations, which result in long-term creep strength \cite{godecCoarseningBehaviourM23C62016}. Although M23C6 can precipitate as primary carbide during solidification, it is most commonly found in secondary carbides along grain boundaries. @@ -499,10 +456,254 @@ $$ 6C + 23Cr \rightarrow Cr23C6 $$ - The remarkable ability of Stellite alloys to withstand these specific challenges stems from key metallurgical features. Their corrosion resistance is primarily attributed to a high chromium content, typically 20-30 wt.\%, which promotes the formation of a highly stable, tenacious, and self-healing chromium-rich passive oxide film on the material's surface; this film acts as a barrier isolating the underlying alloy from the corrosive environment. Alloying elements such as molybdenum and tungsten can further enhance this passivity, particularly improving resistance to localized corrosion phenomena like pitting and crevice corrosion in aggressive media. Concurrently, their outstanding cavitation resistance is largely derived from the unique behavior of the cobalt-rich matrix, which can undergo a stress-induced crystallographic transformation from a face-centered cubic (fcc) to a hexagonal close-packed (hcp) structure. This transformation, often facilitated by mechanical twinning, effectively absorbs the intense, localized impact energy from collapsing cavitation bubbles and leads to significant work hardening, thereby impeding material detachment and erosion. Antony suggests that the cavitation-erosion resistance of Stellites derives from the matrix phase and is enhanced by the strain-induced fcc \textrightarrow hcp allotropic transformation \cite{antonyWearResistantCobaltBaseAlloys1983}. +\section{Corrosion resistance of Stellites} +\label{sec:org69354c8} + + + +The cavitation erosion of stellites has been investigated in experimental studies \cite{Wang2023, Szala2022741, Mitelea2022967, Liu2022, Sun2021, Szala2021, Zhang2021, Mutascu2019776, Kovalenko2019175, E201890, Ciubotariu2016154, Singh201487, Hattor2014257, Depczynski20131045, Singh2012498, Romo201216, Hattori20091954, Ding201797, Guo2016123, Ciubotariu201698}, along with investigations into cobalt-based alloys \cite{Lavigne2022, Hou2020, Liu2019, Zhang20191060, E2019246, Romero2019581, Romero2019518, Lei20119, Qin2011209, Ding200866, Feng2006558}. + + + +Stellites achieve oxidation resistance through the formation of a passivating external Cr2O3 scale, due to the high proportion of Cr in their chemical composition \cite{pettitOxidationHotCorrosion1984}. + +as seen by Zhang et al in Green Death solution \cite{zhangPittingCorrosionCharacterization2014}. + +However, Cr-based carbides may be preferentialy oxidized below the external Cr2O3 scale, particularly at the boundary of carbides which are depleted of Cr \cite{zhangPittingCorrosionCharacterization2014}, where preferential attack of carbides proceed until they have been consumed \cite{pettitOxidationHotCorrosion1984}. + + + + +Lemaire et al \cite{lemaireEvidenceTribocorrosionWear2001} investigated the behavior of Stellite 6 in pressurized high temperature water and proposed an oxidative wear mechanism where wear proceeds by repeated detachment of the surface oxide spontaneously forming on the stellite surface. + +Di Martino et al \cite{dimartinoCorrosionMetalsAlloys2004} also found that the protective chromium-rich film are abraded easily, leading to further corrosion. + + +In such lower-temperature regimes, the passive films formed are typically very thin (in the nanometer range, rather than the micrometer scale observed at high temperatures) + + +Molybdenum and tungsten have favorable effects on the selective oxidation of chromium until chromium has been depleted, at which point molybdenum and tungsten result in increased oxidation due to development of less protective phases \cite{pettitOxidationHotCorrosion1984}. +\chapter{Analytical Investigations} +\label{sec:org8033dd3} +\section{Strain hardening} +\label{sec:org7fdd126} + + +Cavitation bubble collapse induce a work hardening of the material surface, comparable to that obtained in conventional peening \cite{swietlickiEffectsShotPeening2022}, characterized by the thickness of the hardened layers and the shape of the strain profile below the surface. + +The strain profile within the material can usually be modeled by the following power law: + +\begin{equation} +\epsilon\left(x\right) = \epsilon_s {\left( 1 - \frac{x}{L} \right)}^{\theta} +\end{equation} + +where \(\epsilon\left(x\right)\) is the strain at depth \(x\) from the eroded surface, \(\epsilon_s\) is the failure rupture strain on the eroded surface, \(L\) is the thickness of the hardened layer, and \(\theta\) is the shape factor of the power law. + +After each cycle, the thickness of the hardened layer \(L\) and the surface strain \(\epsilon_s\) will increase continuously until damage is initiated at the surface (\(\epsilon_s\) reaches the failure rupture strain \(\epsilon_R\)), at which point the strain profile is in steady-state. + +\begin{equation} +\epsilon_R = \epsilon_{mean} {\left( 1 - \frac{\Delta L }{L+ \Delta L} \right)}^{\theta} +\end{equation} + + + +In Woodford's investigations on the \$\(\gamma\)\$\textrrightarrow\(\epsilon\) transformation on the surface of cobalt-base alloys during cavitation erosion, the transformed layer was found to extend to a depth of 25 to 50 \um \footnote\{Converted from the original 1e-3 to 2e-3 \cite{woodfordCavitationerosionlnducedPhaseTransformations1972}\}. +\section{Correlative empirical methods} +\label{sec:orge291d5a} + +Empirical methods are common for addressing complex cavitation erosion, involving lab tests to correlate cavitation erosion resistance with mechanical properties. +\begin{enumerate} +\item Karimi and Leo +\label{sec:org1da1948} + +The Karimi and Leo phenomenological model describes cavitation erosion rate as a function of + +Karimi and Leo +\item Noskievic +\label{sec:org4c62fc9} + +Noskievic formulated a mathematical relaxation model for the dynamics of the cavitation erosion using a differential equation applied to forced oscillations with damping: + +\begin{equation} +\frac{\mathrm{d}^2 v }{\mathrm{d}t^2} + 2 \alpha \frac{\mathrm{d} v }{\mathrm{d}t} + \beta^2 v = I +\end{equation} + +where \(I\) is erosion intensity, which can vary linearly with time, \(v = \frac{\mathrm{d} v }{\mathrm{d}t}\) is erosion rate, \(\alpha\) is strain hardening or internal friction of material during plastic deformation, and \(\beta\) is coefficient inversely proportional to material strength. The general solution of equation can be written as: + +\begin{equation} +v = a f_0 \left( \delta, \tau \right) + b f_1 \left( \delta, \tau \right) +\end{equation} + +\begin{equation} +f_0\left(\ \delta,\tau \right) = \left\{ \begin{array}{@{}lr@{}} +1 - \mathrm{exp}{ \left( - \delta \tau \right) } \left[ \dfrac{\delta}{\omega} \mathrm{sin} \left(\omega \tau\right) + \mathrm{cos}{\left( \omega \tau \right)} \right] +& \text{if } -1 < \delta < 1; \delta \neq 0 \\ +1 - \dfrac{1}{ {{\delta_0}^2} - 1} \left[ \delta_0^2 \mathrm{exp}{\left( -\dfrac{\tau}{\delta_0}}\right) - \mathrm{exp}{\left(- \delta_0 \tau\right)} \right] +& \text{if } \delta > 1 \\ +1 - \mathrm{cos}{\left( \tau \right)} +& \text{if } \delta = 0 \\ +1 - \left(1 + \tau \right) \mathrm{exp} \left( - \tau \right) +& \text{if } \delta = 1 +\end{array} \right\} \\ +\end{equation} +\begin{equation} +f_1\left(\ \delta,\tau \right) = \left\{ \begin{array}{@{}lr@{}} +1 - \dfrac{2\delta}{\tau} \left[ 1 - {\mathrm{exp}\left(-\delta \tau\right)} {\left[ {\mathrm{cos} \omega \tau} + {\epsilon \mathrm{sin} \omega \tau} \right]} \right] +& \text{if } -1 < \delta < 1; \delta \neq 0 \\ +1 - \dfrac{1}{\tau} \left( 2 \delta - \dfrac{1}{\delta_0 \left( \delta_0^2 - 1 \right)} \left[\mathrm{exp}{\left( -\delta_0 \tau \right) - \delta^4 \mathrm{exp}{\left( \dfrac{-\tau}{\delta_0} \right)} \right] \right) +& \text{if } \delta > 1 \\ +1 - \dfrac{ \mathrm{sin}{\left( \tau \right)} }{\tau} +& \text{if } \delta = 0 \\ +1 - \dfrac{2 \left[ 1 - \mathrm{exp}\left(-\tau\right) \right]}{\tau} + \mathrm{exp} \left( - \tau \right) +& \text{if } \delta = 1 +\end{array} \right\} +\end{equation} +\begin{equation} +\delta = \dfrac{\alpha}{\beta},\quad +\tau = \beta t,\quad +\epsilon = \dfrac{\delta^2 - 0.5}{\delta \sqrt{ 1 - \delta^2 } },\quad +\omega = \sqrt{1 - \delta^2},\quad +\delta_0 = \delta + \sqrt{ \delta^2 - 1 } +\end{equation} +\item Hoff and Langbein equation +\label{sec:orgceeebd6} + +Hoff and Langbein proposed a simple exponential function for the rate of erosion, representing the normalized erosion rate requiring only the +A simple exponential function for the rate of erosion was proposed by Hoff and Langbein, + +$$ \frac{ \dot{e} }{ \dot{e_{max}} } = 1 - e^{\frac{-t_i}{t}} $$ + +\(\dot{e}\) - erosion rate at any time t +\(\dot{e_{max}}\) - Maximum of peak erosion rate +\(t_i\) - incubation period (intercept on time axis extended from linear potion of erosion-time curve) +\(t\) - exposure time +\item L Sitnik model +\label{sec:org363b6da} + +$$ V = V_o {\left[ ln\left( \frac{t}{t_o} + 1 \right) \right]} ^ {\beta} $$ + + +$$ \dot{V} = \frac{\beta V_o}{t + t_o} {\left[ ln \left( \frac{t}{t_o} + 1 \right) \right]}^{\beta - 1}$$ + +V\textsubscript{o} > 0 +t\textsubscript{o} > 0 +\(\beta\) >= 1 +\end{enumerate} +\chapter{Experimental Investigations} +\label{sec:org50f0b08} + + +\section{Materials and Microstructure} +\label{sec:orgcb11db4} + +The HIPed Stellite 1 alloys were manufactured by canning the gas-atomized powders, manufactured by Deloro Stellite (UK), at a temperature and pressure of 1200C and 100 MPa, for 4 hours in a HIPing vessel where the chemical composition and sieve analysis have been reported in previous work by Ahmed et al \cite{ahmedInfluenceAlloyComposition2025}. + +The sieve analysis of these powders indicate that the majority of powder particles were in the size range of 45 to 180 um. + +The cast alloy samples were produced via sand casting process. + +\begin{center} +\begin{tabular}{llrrrrrrrr} + & Co & Cr & W & Mo & C & Fe & Ni & Si & Mn\\ +HIPed Stellite 1 & Bal. & 31.70 & 12.70 & 0.29 & 2.47 & 2.30 & 2.38 & 1.06 & 0.26\\ +\end{tabular} +\end{center} + + + +\begin{center} +\begin{tabular}{lrrrrr} + & +250 & +180 & +125 & +45 & -45\\ +HIPed Stellite 1 & 0.10 & 2.40 & 47.90 & 49.50 & 0.10\\ +\end{tabular} +\end{center} +\section{Materials and Microstructure} +\label{sec:org2c06665} + +The HIPed alloy was produced via canning the gas-atomized powders at 1200C and 100 MPa pressure for 4h, while the cast alloys were produced via sand casting. +\% Sieve analysis and description of powders + +\% Refer to Table of chemical compositions of both cast and HIPed alloys. + +The microstructure of the alloys were observed via SEM in BSE mode, and the chemical compositions of the identified phases developed in the alloys were determined via EDS as well as with XRD under Cu \(K_{\alpha}\) radiation. + +Image analysis was also conducted to ascertain the volume fractions of individual phases. + + +The Vickers microhardness was measured using a Wilson hardness tester under loads of BLAH. Thirty measurements under each load were conducted on each sample. + + + + +The microstructure phase identification was investigated out using X-ray diffraction technique with Cu-K\(\alpha\) radiation (\(\lambda = 1.5406 \AA{}\)). +The volume fraction of \(\epsilon\)-Co can be determined using the intensity of the \((200)_{\gamma}\) and \((10\bar{1}1)_{hcp}\) peaks, using the following equation proposed by Sage and Guillaud: + +\begin{equation} +\textrm{hcp} (\textrm{vol}\%) = \frac{I(10\bar{1}1)_{\epsilon}}{I(10\bar{1}1)_{\epsilon} + 1.5I(200)_{\gamma}} +\end{equation} +\section{Experimental determination of SFE} +\label{sec:orgfba33df} + +To experimentally determine the SFE, the XRD method proposed by Reed and Schramm was employed \cite{reedRelationshipStackingfaultEnergy1974}: + +\begin{equation} +SFE = \frac{K_{111} \omega_0 G_{111} a_0}{\pi \sqrt{3}} \frac{{<\epsilon_{50\AA}^2>}_{111}}{\alpha} A^{-0.37} +\end{equation} + +where: + + +\begin{equation} +K_{111}\omega_0 &= 6.6 \\ +G_{111} = \frac{1}{3}\frac{1}{C_{44} + C_{11} - C_{12}} +A &= \frac{1 C_{44}}{C_{11}-C_{12}} +\end{equation} + + +ployed \cite{reedRelationshipStackingfaultEnergy1974}: + +\(SFE\) = stacking fault energy \(\frac{mJ}{m^2}\) +\(K_{111}\omega_0\) = 6.6, as obtained by +\(A\) is the Zener elastic anisotropy +\(C_{ij}\) are elastic stiffness coefficients +\(G_{111}\) is the shear modulus of the (111)-plane, in which stacking faults are formed +\(a_0\) is the lattic constant of the fcc-metal matrix +\({<\epsilon^2_{111}>}_{50\AA}\) is thr root mean square microstrain in the <111> direction averaged over the distance of \(50 \AA\) +\(\alpha\) is stacking fault probability +\begin{enumerate} +\item Elastic constant +\label{sec:org2a39c17} + + + + + +Microhardness measurements were taken on the surfaces of the as-cast and HIPed samples. The Wilson Tukon 1102 hardness tester was used for Vickers microhardness testing with a load of 300 grams (HV\textsubscript{0.3}) for 10s, and averaged by using ten individual indentations. The specimen surface was prepared in the same fashion as for microstructural analysis. + +Previous work + + +The indentation fracture toughness was made with hardness equipment (AVK-A, AKASHI) at a load of 49 N for 10 s, and the value was obtained from five measurements on the cross section. The fracture toughness was evaluated based to the Evans-Wilshaw equation [21, 22]. + +\begin{equation} +K_{IC} = 0.079 {\left( \frac{P}{a^{\frac{3}{2}}} \right)}log{\left(\frac{4.5 a }{c}\right)} +\end{equation} + +where \(P\) is indenter load \([\textrm{mN}]\), \(2c\) is the crack length \(\left[\mu\textrm{m}\right]\), and \(2a\) is the length of indentation diagonal \(\left[\mu\textrm{m}\right]\) +\end{enumerate} +\section{Electrochemical instrument and experiments} +\label{sec:orga597842} + +A Corrtest potentiostat was used for electrochemical experiments in a conventional three electrode cell, with the sample as working electrode with exposed area 2cm2, a saturated calomel electrode (SCE) as reference electrode, and a Pt plate as counterelectrode. + +All electrochemical experiments were performed at room temperature. + +The open circuit potential was continuously recorded for 1 h, before the electrical impedence spectroscopy (EIS), LPR, and cyclic voltametry experiments. + + The aqueous oxidation of Stellite 6 alloy was investigated in a 1979 study using X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) \cite{mcintyreXRayPhotoelectronSpectroscopic1979}. Specimens were exposed to pH 10 water at 285°C. To understand the oxidation behavior, the study measured dissolved oxygen concentration against exposure duration. @@ -512,21 +713,22 @@ The high-temperature corrosion resistance of stellite coatings is attributable t Heathcock et al found that carbides are selectively eroded, with the carbide-matrix interface acting as initiating erosion site \cite{heathcockCavitationErosionCobaltbased1981}. -\section{Paragraph 4: Synergistic Challenges in Applications Prone to Corrosion and Cavitation\hfill{}\textsc{ignore}} -\label{sec:org6e56f58} -\section{Paragraph 5: Research and Development for Enhanced Corrosion and Cavitation Performance\hfill{}\textsc{ignore}} -\label{sec:org771c866} -\section{Paragraph 6: Influence of HIPing\hfill{}\textsc{ignore}} -\label{sec:orgc7253a3} +\begin{enumerate} +\item Paragraph 4: Synergistic Challenges in Applications Prone to Corrosion and Cavitation\hfill{}\textsc{ignore} +\label{sec:orgef59158} +\item Paragraph 5: Research and Development for Enhanced Corrosion and Cavitation Performance\hfill{}\textsc{ignore} +\label{sec:org09b1711} +\item Paragraph 6: Influence of HIPing\hfill{}\textsc{ignore} +\label{sec:org5892ba0} Compared with the case alloys, the HIPed alloys had relatively finer, rounded, and distributed carbides. -\section{Paragraph: Cavitation Erosion Resistance} -\label{sec:orgc39e335} +\item Paragraph: Cavitation Erosion Resistance +\label{sec:org57f9a5a} The primary result of an erosion test is the cumulative mass loss versus time, which is then converted to volumetric loss and mean depth of erosion (MDE) versus time for the purposes of comparison between materials of different densities. The calculation of the mean depth of erosion for this test method should be performed in conformity with ASTM G-32. -\section{General Background} -\label{sec:orgf417579} +\item General Background +\label{sec:orga380e08} \%cite:@Franc2004265, @Romo201216, @Kumar2024, @Kim200685, @Gao2024, @20221xix, @Usta2023, @Cheng2023, @Zheng2022 Cavitation erosion presents a significant challenge in materials degradation in various industrial sectors, including hydroelectric power, marine propulsion, and nuclear systems, stemming from a complex interaction between fluid dynamics and material response \cite{francCavitationErosion2005, romoCavitationHighvelocitySlurry2012}. Hydrodynamically, the phenomenon initiates with the formation and subsequent violent collapse of vapor bubbles within a liquid, triggered by local pressures dropping to the saturated vapor pressure. These implosions generate intense, localized shockwaves and high-speed microjets that repeatedly impact adjacent solid surfaces \cite{gevariDirectIndirectThermal2020}. From a materials perspective, these impacts induce high stresses (100-1000 MPa) and high strain rates, surpassing material thresholds and leading to damage accumulation via plastic deformation, work hardening, fatigue crack initiation and propagation, and eventual material detachment. Mitigating this requires materials capable of effectively absorbing or resisting this dynamic loading, often under demanding conditions that may also include corrosion. @@ -559,125 +761,9 @@ Stellite 1 is a high-carbon and high-tungsten alloy, making it suitable for dema \section{Thesis Outline} \section{Literature Survey} \section{Cavitation Tests} -\chapter{Analytical Investigations} -\label{sec:org701ceff} -\section{Strain hardening} -\label{sec:orgae434ab} - - -Cavitation bubble collapse induce a work hardening of the material surface, comparable to that obtained in conventional peening \cite{swietlickiEffectsShotPeening2022}, characterized by the thickness of the hardened layers and the shape of the strain profile below the surface. - -The strain profile within the material can usually be modeled by the following power law: - -\begin{equation} -\epsilon\left(x\right) = \epsilon_s {\left( 1 - \frac{x}{L} \right)}^{\theta} -\end{equation} - -where \(\epsilon\left(x\right)\) is the strain at depth \(x\) from the eroded surface, \(\epsilon_s\) is the failure rupture strain on the eroded surface, \(L\) is the thickness of the hardened layer, and \(\theta\) is the shape factor of the power law. - -After each cycle, the thickness of the hardened layer \(L\) and the surface strain \(\epsilon_s\) will increase continuously until damage is initiated at the surface (\(\epsilon_s\) reaches the failure rupture strain \(\epsilon_R\)), at which point the strain profile is in steady-state. - -\begin{equation} -\epsilon_R = \epsilon_{mean} {\left( 1 - \frac{\Delta L }{L+ \Delta L} \right)}^{\theta} -\end{equation} -\section{Correlative empirical methods} -\label{sec:orga1e98e9} - -Empirical methods are common for addressing complex cavitation erosion, involving lab tests to correlate cavitation erosion resistance with mechanical properties. -\begin{enumerate} -\item Karimi and Leo -\label{sec:org2cce5b5} - -The Karimi and Leo phenomenological model describes cavitation erosion rate as a function of - -Karimi and Leo -\item Noskievic -\label{sec:org2309ffd} - -Noskievic formulated a mathematical relaxation model for the dynamics of the cavitation erosion using a differential equation applied to forced oscillations with damping: - -\begin{equation} -\frac{\mathrm{d}^2 v }{\mathrm{d}t^2} + 2 \alpha \frac{\mathrm{d} v }{\mathrm{d}t} + \beta^2 v = I -\end{equation} - -where \(I\) is erosion intensity, which can vary linearly with time, \(v = \frac{\mathrm{d} v }{\mathrm{d}t}\) is erosion rate, \(\alpha\) is strain hardening or internal friction of material during plastic deformation, and \(\beta\) is coefficient inversely proportional to material strength. The general solution of equation can be written as: -\begin{equation} -v = a f_0 \left( \delta, \tau \right) + b f_1 \left( \delta, \tau \right) -\end{equation} -\begin{equation*} -f_0\left(\ \delta,\tau \right) = \begin{cases*} -1 - \mathrm{exp}{ \left( - \delta \tau \right) } \left[ \dfrac{\delta}{\omega} \mathrm{sin} \left(\omega \tau\right) + \mathrm{cos}{\left( \omega \tau \right)} \right] -& \text{if} -1 < \delta < 1; \delta \neq 0 \\ -1 - \dfrac{1}{ {{\delta_0}^2} - 1} \left[ \delta_0^2 \mathrm{exp}{\left( -\dfrac{\tau}{\delta_0}}\right) - \mathrm{exp}{\left(- \delta_0 \tau\right)} \right] -& \text{if} \delta > 1 \\ -1 - \mathrm{cos}{\left( \tau \right)} -& \text{if} \delta = 0 \\ -1 - \left(1 + \tau \right) \mathrm{exp} \left( - \tau \right) -& if \delta = 1 -\end{cases*} -\end{equation*} -\begin{equation*} -f_1\left(\ \delta,\tau \right) = \begin{cases*} -1 - \dfrac{2\delta}{\tau} \left[ 1 - {\mathrm{exp}\left(-\delta \tau\right)} {\left[ {\mathrm{cos} \omega \tau} + {\epsilon \mathrm{sin} \omega \tau} \right]} \right] -& \text{if} -1 < \delta < 1; \delta \neq 0 \\ -1 - \dfrac{1}{\tau} \left( 2 \delta - \dfrac{1}{\delta_0 \left( \delta_0^2 - 1 \right)} \left[\mathrm{exp}{\left( -\delta_0 \tau \right) - \delta^4 \mathrm{exp}{\left( - \dfrac{\tau}{\delta_0} \right)} \right] \right) -& \text{if} \delta > 1 \\ -1 - \dfrac{ \mathrm{sin}{\left( \tau \right)} }{\tau} -& \text{if} \delta = 0 \\ -1 - \dfrac{2 \left[ 1 - \mathrm{exp}\left(-\tau\right) \right]}{\tau} + \mathrm{exp} \left( - \tau \right) -& if \delta = 1 -\end{cases*} -\end{equation*} -\begin{equation*} -\delta = \dfrac{\alpha}{\beta},\quad -\tau = \beta t,\quad -\epsilon = \dfrac{\delta^2 - 0.5}{\delta \sqrt{ 1 - \delta^2 } },\quad -\omega = \sqrt{1 - \delta^2},\quad -\delta_0 = \delta + \sqrt{ \delta^2 - 1 } -\end{equation*} -\item Hoff and Langbein equation -\label{sec:org36031ea} - -Hoff and Langbein proposed a simple exponential function for the rate of erosion, representing the normalized erosion rate requiring only the -A simple exponential function for the rate of erosion was proposed by Hoff and Langbein, - -$$ \frac{ \dot{e} }{ \dot{e_{max}} } = 1 - e^{\frac{-t_i}{t}} $$ - -\(\dot{e}\) - erosion rate at any time t -\(\dot{e_{max}}\) - Maximum of peak erosion rate -\(t_i\) - incubation period (intercept on time axis extended from linear potion of erosion-time curve) -\(t\) - exposure time -\item L Sitnik model -\label{sec:org2511802} - -$$ V = V_o {\left[ ln\left( \frac{t}{t_o} + 1 \right) \right]} ^ {\beta} $$ - - -$$ \dot{V} = \frac{\beta V_o}{t + t_o} {\left[ ln \left( \frac{t}{t_o} + 1 \right) \right]}^{\beta - 1}$$ - -V\textsubscript{o} > 0 -t\textsubscript{o} > 0 -\(\beta\) >= 1 \end{enumerate} -\chapter{Experimental Investigations} -\label{sec:orgd786c5f} - -\section{Materials and Microstructure} -\label{sec:org74c8cac} - -The HIPed alloy was produced via canning the gas-atomized powders at 1200C and 100 MPa pressure for 4h, while the cast alloys were produced via sand casting. -\% Sieve analysis and description of powders - -\% Refer to Table of chemical compositions of both cast and HIPed alloys. - -The microstructure of the alloys were observed via SEM in BSE mode, and the chemical compositions of the identified phases developed in the alloys were determined via EDS as well as with XRD under Cu \(K_{\alpha}\) radiation. - -Image analysis was also conducted to ascertain the volume fractions of individual phases. - - -The Vickers microhardness was measured using a Wilson hardness tester under loads of BLAH. Thirty measurements under each load were conducted on each sample. \chapter{Discussion} -\label{sec:orgc2d24d7} +\label{sec:org8fd0a10} \section{Experimental Test Procedure} \subsection{Hardness Tests} \subsection{Cavitation} @@ -704,6 +790,7 @@ The propagation of ultrasonic waves may result in thermal energy absorption or i + \label{Bibliography} \printbibliography[title={References}, heading=bibintoc, resetnumbers=true] \end{document} diff --git a/literature_review.org b/literature_review.org index e9558c3..5afe41f 100644 --- a/literature_review.org +++ b/literature_review.org @@ -1,3 +1,3 @@ version https://git-lfs.github.com/spec/v1 -oid sha256:76b257064476329b1b2f05d81f0945dab7f048ce4e21850eb75bc555e1e64ff5 -size 297164 +oid sha256:3ff0920efc9e0118d26f1a324dd0d5769fdbbc6551a4610001fd11d311977770 +size 295950 diff --git a/references.bib b/references.bib index 4873af4..9743bd0 100644 --- a/references.bib +++ b/references.bib @@ -1,3 +1,3 @@ version https://git-lfs.github.com/spec/v1 -oid sha256:1f2cfd024fcd2eca9269e8ee5cd156a5e0a96da5ab1570638f42069c8a8939ea -size 2802806 +oid sha256:8a4dfba4c29709368e854e28928d16ab1e14f6e1b932934889fd857c4dda782e +size 2858674 diff --git a/thesis_original.org b/thesis_original.org index 730727b..4564e87 100644 --- a/thesis_original.org +++ b/thesis_original.org @@ -400,7 +400,11 @@ The matrix in stellite alloys consist of cobalt (Co) with solid-solution strengt # Understanding the matrix phase # Understanding the cobalt phase is crucial for studying structural changes in Co-based alloys widely used in industry. -Cobalt and Co-Cr alloys undergo thermally induced phase transformation from the high temperature face-centered cubic (fcc) $\gamma$ phase to low temperature hexagonal close-packed (hcp) $\epsilon$ phase at 700 K and strain induced fcc-hcp transition through maretensitic-type mechanism (partial movement of dislocations) \cite{HUANG2023106170}. At ambient conditions, the metastable FCC retained phase in stellites can be transformed into HCP phase by mechanical loading, although any HCP phase is completely transformed into a FCC phase between 673 K and 743 K \cite{DUBOS2020128812}; the metastable fcc cobalt phase in stellite alloys \cite{Rajan19821161} absorbs a large part of imparted energy under the mechanical loading of cavitation erosion. The fcc to hcp transition is related to the very low stacking fault energy of the fcc structure (7 mJ/m2) \cite{Tawancy1986337}. +Cobalt and Co-Cr alloys undergo thermally induced phase transformation from the high temperature face-centered cubic (fcc) $\gamma$ phase to low temperature hexagonal close-packed (hcp) $\epsilon$ phase at 700 K and strain induced fcc-hcp transition through maretensitic-type mechanism (partial movement of dislocations) +\cite{HUANG2023106170}. +At ambient conditions, the metastable FCC retained phase in stellites can be transformed into HCP phase by mechanical loading, although any HCP phase is completely transformed into a FCC phase between 673 K and 743 K \cite{DUBOS2020128812}; the metastable fcc cobalt phase in stellite alloys \cite{Rajan19821161} absorbs a large part of imparted energy under the mechanical loading of cavitation erosion. + +The fcc to hcp transition is related to the very low stacking fault energy of the fcc structure (7 mJ/m2) \cite{Tawancy1986337}. # Let's talk about the addition of other elements Solid-solution strengthening leads to increase of the fcc cobalt matrix strength (due to distortion of the atomic lattice with the addition of elements of different atomic radii), and decrease of low stacking fault energy \cite{Tawancy1986337} due to the adjusted electronic structure of the metallic lattice. Dislocation motion in stellites is discouraged by solute atoms of Mo and W, due to the large atomic sizes. Given that dislocation cross slip is the main deformation mode in imperfect crystals at elevated temperature, as dislocation slip is a diffusion process that is enhanced at high temperature, this leads to high temperature stability \cite{LIU2022294}. In addition, nickel (Ni), iron (Fe), and carbon (C) stabilize the fcc structure of cobalt (a = 0.35 nm), while chromium (Cr) and tungsten (W), stabilize the hcp structure (a = 0.25 nm and c = 0.41 nm) \cite{Vacchieri20171100, Tawancy1986337}.